ArgumentThe Germans occupying Paris arrested Emile Borel and three other members of the Académie des Sciences in October 1941 and released them about five weeks later. Drawing on German and French archives and other sources, we argue that these events illustrate the complexity of the motivations and tactics of the occupiers and the occupied. While Borel and his colleagues were genuine members of the Resistance, and those who arrested them were full participants in a brutal occupation, both sides (...) respected a bargain, of no small importance to the Vichy regime, that allowed the university to pursue its work if its members avoided overt acts of opposition. (shrink)

During the German occupation, the fratricidal Polish-Ukrainian conflict became particularly acute. In 1941 Archbishop Boleslav Tvardovsky and Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky discussed the question of their pastoral duty to prevent the rise of crimes caused by this conflict. At the same time, both hierarchs expressed some despair that they did not have sufficient influence on the perpetrators of these crimes.

Le Bureau international des poids et mesures fait partie en 1940 des quelques organisations intergouvernementales dont le siège est en zone occupée. Pendant toute la durée de la guerre, il est soumis à la pression du Militärbefehlshaber in Frankreich (MbF), le commandement militaire allemand, et entretient des relations continues avec le gouvernement de Vichy et de nombreuses institutions françaises. Cette contribution a pour ambition d’apporter une vue d’ensemble sur l’histoire de cette organisation sous l’Occupation en analysant son fonctionnement et (...) ses points d’appui dans ce contexte particulier. Elle examinera la trajectoire de son directeur, Albert Pérard (1880-1960), et de son réseau, les stratégies déployées pour s’adapter aux contraintes de la période et plus généralement pour maintenir une coopération scientifique à l’échelle internationale dans un monde fracturé par la guerre et une Europe sous domination nazie. Quelles conséquences de la « parenthèse Vichy » peuvent-elles être identifiées au niveau institutionnel et sur la construction des carrières de ses figures emblématiques? (shrink)

The managerial turn in academia is currently broadly discussed. Based on empirical data gathered from a sample that includes all German universities, we can give a broad and fine-grained account of this turn. What we can clearly see is that whole new categories of administrative management positions have been created over the last years. Furthermore, within the non-academic staff we can see a profound restructuration. Lower-level positions like those for clerical work decreased, while higher-level positions in the administration increased. (...) However, and in contrast to studies of countries, we do not observe a general shift from academic to non-academic positions. In addition to the statistical analysis of survey data and personnel data, we conducted seventy in-depth interviews with heads of administrative management units, in particular those being created over the last two decades, for example, on quality control, technology transfer, and career service. Although we clearly see important changes indicating a managerial turn in higher education, core characteristics of a professional organization whose basic processes are ultimately controlled by academics and not by administrators or managers have been retained. These findings call for further cross-national research. (shrink)

The sketch of communist society in The German Ideology is often dismissed for lacking seriousness or coherence. Thorough philological, contextual and philosophical inquiry reveals otherwise. The final version of the sketch enjoys a systematic place within Marx’s thought, as a description of activity in developed communism, and advances a provocative thesis of the negation of vocation. This thesis is composed of two distinct claims: occupational confinement is abolished, and occupational identities disappear. These claims recommend communist society on grounds of (...) autonomy and recognition. (shrink)

The article presents the military fortifications built by the Germans during World War II near Tomaszów Mazowiecki in the years 1940–1944, especially the long belt of fortifications called Piliza Stellung, although it focuses on a relatively short section running along the Pilica River from Sulejów to Inowłódz and Lubocz (near Rzeczyca). The paper discusses various types of shelters, and more broadly presents the preserved military fortifications in Tomaszów Mazowiecki and the railway shelter complexes (“Anlage Mitte”) in Konewka and Jelenia.

Soumis aux conditions difficiles que lui impose l’Occupation, Julien Benda exprime dans La Grande Épreuve des démocraties une foi lucide en la démocratie, fondée sur un bilan critique du combat antifasciste. Appelant les Européens à privilégier dans leur passé les éléments d’une tradition républicaine d’inspiration libérale et sociale, il remet en cause la relative indifférence qu’il a longtemps entretenue, dans l’esprit de La trahison des clercs, à l’égard des systèmes politiques et de l’espoir de promouvoir la justice dans les (...) sociétés humaines, au profit d’un idéal élitiste soucieux de préserver la liberté d’une minorité d’intellectuels tournés vers l’éternité.Affirmant nettement la nécessité d’un ordre juridique international coercitif et chargé de veiller au respect des principes démocratiques, Julien Benda, collaborant aux publications de la Résistance, a la conviction que la démocratie doit se libérer de l’humanisme pacifiste dont elle est naturellement porteuse, et qu’elle doit, passant par un moment machiavélien, aller contre ses propres valeurs, et s’appuyer sur la force pour assurer son existence face à ses ennemis.Submitted to the difficult conditions imposed on him by the German occupation in France, Julien Benda, in La Grande Épreuve des démocraties expresses a true lucid faith in democracy, grounded on the critical appraisal of the anti-fascist fight. Urging the Europeans to privilege within their past the elements of a Republican tradition of a social and liberal inspiration, he questions the relative indifference he had for quite a while entertained, within the spirit of the Trahison des clercs, towards political systems and his hope to be able to promote justice in human societies, to the profit of an elitist ideal careful to safeguard the freedom of a minority of intellectuals turned towards eternity.Strongly stressing the necessity of a legal international order both coercive and meant to be sure democratic principles should be applied and respected, Julien Benda, by collaborating to the publications of the French Resistance, strongly believes that democracy should free itself from the pacifist humanism which it normally evidences and that it should – through a Machiavellian moment – go astride from its own values and rest on strength to grant its existence when confronted to its enemies. (shrink)

Journal of Philosophy of Education, EarlyView.

Ce récit d’une expérience d’enseignement de la philosophie dans le cadre général de l’occupation allemande, mais dans des conditions et circonstances singulières, tente de restituer l’ambiance d’oppression et de répression. Le lycée ou le collège dut subir les répercussions des événements politiques dramatiques, extérieurs à lui. La philosophie, dans la tourmente, essaya de préserver son identité et sa continuité. L’enseignant était bien placé pour suivre quelques-unes des péripéties de cette survie et pour témoigner des sacrifices que certains y consentirent.Such (...) a narrative of one’s own experience of teaching philosophy within the general framework of the German Occupation, but also under unusual strange conditions and circumstances, tries to recapture the atmosphere both of oppresion and repression. Both lycées and colleges were submitted to the repercussions of political dramatic events taking place outside. Philosophy, within such a turmoil, tried to preserve its identity and continuity. The teacher was indeed in the right position to follow some of the peripeteia of such a survival and to evidence sacrifices that a few had to give in to. (shrink)

Ce récit d'une expérience d' enseignement de la philosophie dans le cadre général de l' occupation allemande, mais dans des conditions et circonstances singulières, tente de restituer l' ambiance d'oppression et de répression. Le lycée ou le collège dut subir les répercussions des événements politiques dramatiques, extérieurs à lui. La philosophie, dans la tourmente, essaya de préserver son identité et sa continuité. L'enseignant était bien placé pour suivre quelques-unes des péripéties de cette survie et pour témoigner des sacrifices que (...) certains y consentirent. Such a narrative of one's own experience of teaching philosophy within the general framework of the German Occupation, but also under unusual strange conditions and circumstances, tries to recapture the atmosphere both of oppresion and repression. Both lycées and colleges were submitted to the repercussions of political dramatic events taking place outside. Philosophy, within such a turmoil, tried to preserve its identity and continuity. The teacher was indeed in the right position to follow some of the peripeteia of such a survival and to evidence sacrifices that a few had to give in to. (shrink)

The early history of German patriotism is complex and illuminates many of patriotism’s potential virtues as well as its dangers. Throughout the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, patriotism’s overarching connotation was devotion to the greater good, but whether that greater was local, national, or global varied dramatically. Early uses of patriotism were devoid of national or military connotations and instead denoted local engagement in public projects and willingness to aid to those in need. The patriot moreover worked for (...) enlightened political reform, convinced that good government could convert subjects into citizens. Patriotism also had distinct cosmopolitan connotations, indicating someone who had humanity’s good generally as a goal. In the early aftermath of the French Revolution, acting in the interest of humanity’s development meant supporting the revolutionaries as the best hope for furthering political progress. As the Revolution dissolved into the Terror, German intellectuals hoped that Germany could assume the mantle of progress: being a patriot meant supporting German culture as a means of furthering humanity’s enlightenment. The Napoleonic Wars, however, shifted Germans’ attitude significantly: years of French occupation culminated in patriotism being defined as favoring German culture and unity in the interest of defeating the French. Patriotism’s nationalist connotations from that point intensify significantly. But its early history argues for remembering and revitalizing its potential to unite the local with the global and to promote enlightened civic engagement in the pursuit of political progress. (shrink)

The labor market is an area with diverse data structures and multiple applications, such as matching job seekers with the right training or job. For this reason, the multilingual classification of European Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations (ESCO) is a good example of the central role of ontologies in this area. However, ESCO cannot provide all the details of local labor market needs and does not provide links to other hierarchies of competences. For example, other taxonomies of occupations and skills (...) are widely used in German-speaking countries, but they are not in a state where they are easily accessible for interoperability and reasoning. In this paper, we present a first version of a German Labor Market Ontology (GLMO) that uses ESCO as a top-level ontology for the target domain. This makes it highly interoperable and comparable to existing ontologies by providing details for the regional structures in German-speaking countries. In addition, we present a detailed evaluation of the provided data and applications, as well as an extensive discussion of future work. (shrink)

Systematic entomology flourished as a branch of Natural History from the 1750s to the end of the nineteenth century. During this interval, the “era of Heroic Entomology,” the majority of workers in the field were dedicated amateurs. This article traces the demographic and occupational shifts in entomology through this 150-year interval and into the early twentieth century. The survey is based on entomologists who studied beetles (Coleoptera), and who named sufficient numbers of species to have their own names abbreviated by (...) subsequent taxonomists. In the eighteenth century, 27 entomologists achieved this level of prominence, of whom 37% were academics, 19% were doctors, 11% had private incomes, 19% were clergymen, and 8% were government officials. Many of those with private incomes were members of the European aristocracy, and all but one were European men. The nineteenth century list included 192 entomologists, of whom 17% were academics, 16% were museum curators, 2% were school teachers, 15% were doctors, 6% were military men, 7% were merchants, 2% were government entomologists, 6% had private incomes, 5% were clergymen, 5% were government officials, and 4% were lawyers. The demographics of entomology shifted dramatically in the nineteenth century. Whereas many of the noteworthy entomologists of the eighteenth century were German, Swedish, or French, in the nineteenth century, many more European countries are represented, and almost one-fifth of the noteworthy entomologists were from the United States. The nineteenth century list, like the eighteenth century list, contains no women. By the twentieth century, 63% of 178 noteworthy systematic entomologists were paid professionals, teaching entomology courses in universities, or studying insect taxonomy in museums and government-sponsored laboratories. Only one person on the twentieth century list had a private income, but women (ten individuals) were included on the list for the first time. (shrink)

This is the first translation of Fichte's addresses to the German nation for almost 100 years. The series of 14 speeches, delivered whilst Berlin was under French occupation after Prussia's disastrous defeat at the Battle of Jena in 1806, is widely regarded as a founding document of German nationalism, celebrated and reviled in equal measure. Fichte's account of the distinctiveness of the German people and his belief in the native superiority of its culture helped to shape (...) German national identity throughout the nineteenth century and beyond. With an extensive introduction that puts Fichte's argument in its intellectual and historical context, this edition brings an important and seminal work to a modern readership. All of the usual series features are provided, including notes for further reading, chronology, and brief biographies of key individuals. (shrink)

We demonstrate the relationships between occupational demands in German vocational education and training (VET) teacher training, stress symptoms, and different behavioral resilience competencies. Taking into account interindividual differences in resilience competencies, we use a typological approach to identify different types of (trainee) teachers classified by their degrees and configurations of resilience competencies. Our empirical analysis is based on questionnaire data from 131 German vocational trainees and qualified teachers. The results reveal, among other things, that all three resilience competencies—resistance, (...) flexibility, and dynamism—are significantly negatively correlated with the demands of working conditions and workload. Via a latent class analysis, we were able to identify three groups of (trainee) teachers who differed in their resilience competencies to adapt appropriately to different situations and their requirements (“behavioral flexibility”), to recover rapidly from setbacks and to defy the expectations of others (“behavioral resistance”), and to initiate changes as soon as they are necessary or desirable (“behavioral dynamics”). More resilient (trainee) teachers show, among other things, lower values for anxiety as an emotional stress symptom and higher values for job engagement. The findings are discussed with regard to implications for VET teacher training and we stress the need for equilibration on a systemic perspective. (shrink)

The defeat of Germany and Japan in 1945 required historians in both countries to reevaluate the past to make sense of national catastrophe. Sebastian Conrad's The Quest for the Lost Nation analyzes this process comparatively in the context of allied military occupation and the Cold War to reveal how historians in both countries coped with a discredited national history and gradually salvaged a national identity. He pays special attention to the role of social, discursive, and transnational contexts that shaped (...) this process to highlight the different courses that the politics of the past took in postwar Germany and Japan. The picture that emerges of German and Japanese historiography and the respective attempts to come to terms with the past is at odds with the conventional narrative that usually praises West German historians and society for having come to terms with their dark past, as opposed to postwar Japan, which is usually regarded as having fallen short by comparison. There was in fact far more critical historiographical engagement with the past in Japan than in West Germany in the 1950s. Reasons for the divergent evolution of the politics of the past in Germany and Japan should not be sought in the peculiarities of postwar national history but rather in an entangled transnational context of defeat, occupation, and the Cold War, whose effects played out differently in each country. These conclusions and others reveal some of the opportunities and special challenges of comparative transnational history. (shrink)

Essays on one of Fichte's best known and most controversial works. One of J. G. Fichte’s best-known works, Addresses to the German Nation is based on a series of speeches he gave in Berlin when the city was under French occupation. They feature Fichte’s diagnosis of his own era in European history as well as his call for a new sense of German national identity, based upon a common language and culture rather than “blood and soil.” These (...) speeches, often interpreted as key documents in the rise of modern nationalism, also contain Fichte’s most sustained reflections on pedagogical issues, including his ideas for a new egalitarian system of Prussian national education. The contributors’ reconsideration of the speeches deal not only with technical philosophical issues such as the relationship between language and identity, and the tensions between universal and particular motifs in the text, but also with issues of broader concern, including education, nationalism, and the connection between morality and politics. Daniel Breazeale is Professor of Philosophy and Distinguished Professor of Arts and Sciences at the University of Kentucky. Tom Rockmore is Humanities Chair Professor and Professor of Philosophy at Peking University, China. Both have authored, edited, and translated many books. Together, they are the coeditors of Fichte’s Vocation of Man: New Interpretive and Critical Essays, also published by SUNY Press. (shrink)

Este trabajo presenta lo que para la mayoría de los intérpretes de Aristóteles, que se ocupan del asunto del método en su obra, constituye el principal problema a resolver. Se trata del problema de determinar la relación existente entre la concepción aristotélica de ciencia demostrativa, consignada en los Analíticos Segundos, y la praxis investigativa de Aristóteles en sus diferentes tratados científicos, una praxis que los intérpretes dan frecuentemente en describir como dialéctica.

The paper demonstrates the necessity of introducing innovative approaches in addressing social problems of development. It proves the significance of recruiting investment in the social sphere. The author looks into the usage of social business for handling economic development problems of countries. There are factors promoting social entrepreneurship identified. Spatial social inequality in Ukraine is analyzed, the role of social entrepreneurship in its overcoming demonstrated.

El artículo muestra la influencia de los estudios homéricos de Friedrich August Wolf en la recepción romántica de Grecia y la literatura clásica. La formación filológica de los primeros autores románticos fundamenta el estrecho vínculo entre la Ciencia de la Antigüedad (Altertumswissenschaft) y la crítica literaria en el grupo de Jena. Gracias sobre todo a los estudios clásicos de Friedrich Schlegel, este vínculo resultará en una nueva concepción hermenéutica.

Ludwig Wittgenstein’s philosophizing is deeply ontological, and can be defined as a reflexive gesture of keeping silent. The silence secured by reflexing is an essential part of a philosophy. A philosopher has to use language, but things that pass over in silence must influence things he or she says. The speech manifests not only in the spoken, but also in the unspoken. How is it possible? Through understanding a reflexive speech as an action or gesture of annihilation of speech. The (...) expressed words in philosophy and expressed philosophical concepts are just means of referring to the ultimate value which should be thrown away immediately because it cannot say anything about the inexpressible. The philosophy as a gesture of keeping silent is an attempt to meaningfully keep silent through the constantly evolving reflexive annihilation of your own speech. The philosophizing which takes into account the importance of silence becomes a minimalistic gesture. (shrink)

This article is devoted to understanding the worldview expressed in Vladimir Bibikhin’s Leo Tolstoy’s Diaries. The most important feature of this worldview is its practical nature: Bibikhin focuses on changing one’s view of things instead of trying to develop a doctrine. Practical phenomenology is extremely vulnerable to criticism because of its pre-philosophical nature. Therefore, at this stage, I try to explicate some of the features of this peculiar thought while avoiding trying to find its faults. I draw a connection between (...) Bibikhin’s ontological interpretation of the phenomenon with Heidegger’s concept of detachment (Gelassenheit) as a form of behavior, and illustrate that practical phenomenology turns out to be an ontology of contact. It thematizes the philosopher’s own being and focuses on the problems of the contact made in the “change of view,” in which thought, word, and deed converge. Bibikhin’s practical phenomenology is on the outskirts of modern academic philosophy, gravitating towards understanding philosophy as a way of life, in which the contemplative attitude takes the leading place, paradoxically combining experiment with their perception of “first things,” trust in them, and the ability to describe the indescribable, the “change of view.” This makes practical phenomenology related to the experimental phenomenology of Michel Henry. (shrink)

El artículo ubica el origen del primer romanticismo alemán en el contexto receptivo de la crítica kantiana. Se centra para ello en tres de los debates suscitados por la filosofía trascendental: la posibilidad de un principio primero del conocimiento, el vínculo que une filosofía teórica y filosofía práctica y la relación entre belleza y moral. Este planteamiento permite mostrar la formación de la estética romántica como una teoría crítica que se enfrenta a su fundamentación, su procedimiento y su finalidad. De (...) este modo queda patente la aportación del Romanticismo a las futuras teoría y la crítica literarias. (shrink)

La educación consiste en hacer ver al educando que está constituido por, y es parte de, múltiples sistemas y subsistemas de índole social, ambiental y cósmico. Esta educación representa un desarrollo al mismo tiempo cognitivo, ético, emotivo y espiritual. Esta visión de la educación se opone a diversas formas de reduccionismo que no dejan ver las conexiones importantes entre los fenómenos y entre éstos y el observador. En términos éticos, este aprendizaje consiste en el reconocimiento y la producción de juegos (...) de suma positiva. Espiritualmente, consiste en un sentimiento de vínculo con la totalidad, que produce asombro, gratitud y respeto ante el milagro de la existencia. (shrink)

Si no es posible comprender el desarrollo de El Capital sin conocer la Ciencia de la lógica, se busca trazar los lineamientos generales para alcanzar dicha comprensión. En seis tesis se ponen de relieve algunos aspectos importantes del pensamiento de Marx que han sido poco tratados, y se dialoga con la tradición marxista para señalar ciertos equívocos y resaltar algunas interpretaciones. Esto permite ofrecer un nuevo cuadro para entender la actitud crítica que adopta el "último" Marx frente a la dialéctica (...) de su maestro. Because it is not possible to comprehend Capital without knowing the Science of Logic, this article aims to chart some general guidelines to reach such an understanding. In six thesis, I highlight some important aspects of Marx's thought that have been little treated and dialog with the Marxist tradition to indicate certain equivocations and highlight some interpretations. This offers a new framework to understand the critical attitude that the "mature" Marx adopted regarding his teacher's dialect. (shrink)

Aquí se pretende mostrar a la ética espinozista como particularmente útil para el pensamiento ecológico, en cuanto no comparte el antropocentrismo de gran parte de las éticas tradicionales de la filosofía. La ética de Spinoza, en lugar de preguntar ¿cuáles son mis deberes para con otros seres humanos? pregunta más bien ¿cómo debo relacionarme con mi entorno para ser más feliz? La metafísica de Spinoza también proporciona inspiración para quien busca un sistema filosófico que postule responsabilidades hacia el entorno ecológico.

This article has a twofold purpose: first, it explores how Leonardo Polo's personalist anthropology enriches and enhances neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics and second, it highlights how this specific personalist approach brings new perspectives to servant leadership. The recently revived neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics tradition finds that MacIntyre's scholarship significantly contributes to virtue ethics in business—particularly his conception of practices, institutions, and internal/external goods. However, we argue that some of his latest insights about the virtues of acknowledged dependence and human vulnerability remain underdeveloped (...) because of the underlying anthropology that neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics relies on. To overcome this limitation, we introduce Polo's transcendental anthropology as a possible foundation of a personalist approach that enriches virtue ethics. To do so, we address how transcendental anthropology can enrich two central aspects of virtue ethics, namely (1) the understanding of human beings and their flourishing and (2) the relationship of virtue to praxis and human work. Finally, to address the practical implications for business leadership and work that can derive from assuming transcendental anthropology, we address how servant leadership acquires a new perspective in light of this personalism and its logic of gift, highlighting interpersonal self-giving as a way of service. (shrink)

En el presente trabajo se pretende elucidar algunos de los aportes posibles de la filosofía deleuzeana a la teoría social y política, a través de un examen de su concepción del poder. La investigación arroja como un primer resultado que dicho examen requiere una reducción metodológica de los conceptos de lo “molar” y lo “molecular” -que constituyen su concepción más general de lo social- a los términos propios de sus desarrollos ontológicos: “virtual” y “actual” o “acontecimiento y “estado de cosas”. (...) Dicha reducción permitirá identificar dos concepciones cronológicamente sucesivas del poder, la segunda de las cuales, que incluye parcialmente a la primera, permite dar con una definición del poder como agente (no subjetivo) de producción de subjetividad, lo que constituye el resultado de la investigación y su mayor aporte. (shrink)

El artículo busca clarifcar la noción de modelo involucrada en el enfoque semántico de las teorías (EST). Se muestra que en el contexto del EST el término ‘modelo’ tiene dos funciones: en un caso se presenta como una estructura que satisface una descripción y en el otro como una estructura matemática que representa aspectos de ciertos sistemas reales. Así, el término ‘modelo’ posee dos sentidos, pero la función relevante de los modelos para el EST es la de representación y no (...) la de satisfacción. Esto nos permitirá concluir, entre otras cosas, que los partidarios de la concepción estructuralista de las teorías, una de las versiones del EST, colocan el acento en forma inadecuada al concebir los modelos en el sentido de la semántica formal, en tanto que las versiones últimas de van Fraassen y Giere son más apropiadas al privilegiar los modelos como estructuras matemáticas, el primero, y como representaciones, el segundo. (shrink)

Con el fin de cuestionar la primacía del contrato sobre la lógica del don en la modernidad, se contrastan tres arquetipos de relación social a la luz de los radicales polianos, así como los tipos de reciprocidad que se derivan de cada uno de ellos. A la reciprocidad cerrada-dual moderna se opone la reciprocidad abierta-triádica, que es la que caracteriza a las relaciones de don, tanto en su versión clásica como cristiana. Se concluye que sólo el radical cristiano de la (...) persona integra la lógica del don con el sentido radical de la libertad, desde una antropología que complementa la práctica de virtudes como camino de perfección moral con la apertura a la trascendencia y la ayuda al más necesitado. (shrink)

This text, a product of an investigation supported by the Universidad de La Salle entitled “Ecocrítica y Literatura: Aproximación a María y La Vorágine”, is a reflection upon the method (or metamethod) of ecocriticism, that is, literary criticism from ecological values, which uses the work of the aforementioned investigation as an example and object of analysis. The problem is examined from the perspective of a reconciliation between the humanities and the biological sciences. Finally, some pedagogical advantages of ecocriticism are outlined.

In this paper we portray the epistemological proposals of Descartes, Spinoza and Bateson as epistemological reforms that imply deep transformations in the way human beings are and behave in the world by changing their habits. We also suggest that rejecting the theological explanation and understanding of human beings as part of a systemic whole, as proposed by Bateson and Spinoza, is required in order to face the current environmental crisis.

En este texto se busca elaborar una idea de formación en el pensamiento de Baruch de Spinoza, como alternativa a las ideas educativas que, de manera esencialista, mediante el proceso educativo pretenden hacer corresponder al educando a ciertos modelos preestablecidos. Para ello se construye una idea de auto-realización en Spinoza en la que resultan deseables diferentes caminos de auto-realización para diferentes individuos. Se propone que esta auto-realización consiste en ser capaz de obrar y ser afectado de muchas maneras, y se (...) propone que el conocimiento en Spinoza implica una cierta pasividad activa que se nutre de la diferencia y de lo otro. (shrink)