Starting with the hypothesis that analogical reasoning consists of a search of semantic space, we used eye-tracking to study the time course of information integration in adults in various formats of analogies. The two main questions we asked were whether adults would follow the same search strategies for different types of analogical problems and levels of complexity and how they would adapt their search to the difficulty of the task. We compared these results to predictions from the literature. Machine learning (...) techniques, in particular support vector machines (SVMs), processed the data to find out which sets of transitions best predicted the output of a trial (error or correct) or the type of analogy (simple or complex). Results revealed common search patterns, but with local adaptations to the specifics of each type of problem, both in terms of looking-time durations and the number and types of saccades. In general, participants organized their search around source-domain relations that they generalized to the target domain. However, somewhat surprisingly, over the course of the entire trial, their search included, not only semantically related distractors, but also unrelated distractors, depending on the difficulty of the trial. An SVM analysis revealed which types of transitions are able to discriminate between analogy tasks. We discuss these results in light of existing models of analogical reasoning. (shrink)

Establishing healthy dietary habits in childhood is crucial in preventing long-term repercussions, as a lack of dietary variety in childhood leads to enduring impacts on both physical and cognitive health. Poor conceptual knowledge about food has recently been shown to be a driving factor of food rejection. The majority of studies that have investigated the development of food knowledge along with food rejection have mainly focused on one subtype of conceptual knowledge about food, namely taxonomic categories. However, taxonomic categorization is (...) not the only way to understand the food domain. We also heavily rely on other conceptual structures, namely thematic associations, in which objects are grouped because they share spatial-temporal properties or exhibit a complementary relationship. We rely on such thematic associations between food items, which may not fall into the same taxon, to determine the acceptability of food combinations. However, the development of children's ability to master these relations has not been systematically investigated, nor alongside the phenomenon of food rejection. The present research aims to fill this gap by investigating the development of conceptual food knowledge and the putative relationship between children's food rejection and both thematic and taxonomic food knowledge. A proportional analogy task, with a choice between taxonomic and thematic food associates, was conducted on children between 3 and 7-years-old. The children were systematically presented with either a thematic or taxonomic food base pair and then asked to extend the example type of relation to select the respective thematic or taxonomic match to the target. Our results revealed, for the first time, that increased levels of food rejection were significantly predictive of poorer food identification and decreased thematic understanding. These findings entitle us to hypothesize that knowledge-based food education programs to foster dietary variety in young children, should not only aim to improve taxonomic understanding of food, but also thematic relations. (shrink)

According to one productive and influential approach to cognition, categorization, object recognition, and higher level cognitive processes operate on a set of fixed features, which are the output of lower level perceptual processes. In many situations, however, it is the higher level cognitive process being executed that influences the lower level features that are created. Rather than viewing the repertoire of features as being fixed by low-level processes, we present a theory in which people create features to subserve the representation (...) and categorization of objects. Two types of category learning should be distinguished. Fixed space category learning occurs when new categorizations are representable with the available feature set. Flexible space category learning occurs when new categorizations cannot be represented with the features available. Whether fixed or flexible, learning depends on the featural contrasts and similarities between the new category to be represented and the individual's existing concepts. Fixed feature approaches face one of two problems with tasks that call for new features: If the fixed features are fairly high level and directly useful for categorization, then they will not be flexible enough to represent all objects that might be relevant for a new task. If the fixed features are small, subsymbolic fragments (such as pixels), then regularities at the level of the functional features required to accomplish categorizations will not be captured by these primitives. We present evidence of flexible perceptual changes arising from category learning and theoretical arguments for the importance of this flexibility. We describe conditions that promote feature creation and argue against interpreting them in terms of fixed features. Finally, we discuss the implications of functional features for object categorization, conceptual development, chunking, constructive induction, and formal models of dimensionality reduction. Key Words: concept learning; conceptual development; features; perceptual learning; stimulus encoding. (shrink)

The present study investigated children’s understanding development of multiple graphics, here paired conventions commonly used in primary school textbooks. Paired graphics depicting everyday objects familiar to the children were used as the basis for an analogy task that tested their comprehension of five graphics conventions. This task required participants to compare pictures in a base pair in order to complete a target pair by choosing the correct picture from five alternative possibilities. Four groups of children aged 5, 6, 8 and (...) 10 years old respectively (total N = 105), completed 45 analogy task items built around nine conceptual domains. Results showed mainly an overall increase of comprehension performance with age for all the tested conventions. There were also differences between the five conventions and an interaction between age and convention type. Further, children's explanation of the conventions (justification of the choices in the analogy task) were also analyzed. This investigation showed the analogy task answers were a more reliable measure of the "actual" level of understanding of the conventions than the justification themselves. The findings show that younger students tried to actively compare the pictures of the pairs and to search for a relevant meaning of the pairs, however, the youngest children have a limited capacity to interpret paired graphic conventions and our results suggests that this aspect of graphic conventions develops slowly but effectively over the course of children’s schooling. Because "graphicacy" knowledge and skills are not typically taught in primary school classrooms (in contrast with literacy and numeracy), its development is likely acquired incidentally with increasing exposure to varied paired graphics during primary school education. Given the high reliance of today’s educational resources on graphics-based explanations, the results from this study may signal a need for (i) for more attention to learning graphics conventions (and more generally to graphics explanations) from teachers in primary school and (ii) for a better design of the graphics with their contextual accompanying texts and captions, from designers. (shrink)

Children’s reasoning on food properties and health relationships can contribute to healthier food choices. Food properties can either be positive (“gives strength”) or negative (“gives nausea”). One of the main challenges in public health is to foster children’s dietary variety, which contributes to a normal and healthy development. To face this challenge, it is essential to investigate how children generalize these positive and negative properties to other foods, including familiar and unfamiliar ones. In the present experiment, we hypothesized that children (...) might rely on cues of food processing (e.g., signs of human intervention such as slicing) to convey information about item edibility. Furthermore, capitalizing on previous results showing that food rejections (i.e., food neophobia and picky eating) are a significant source of inter-individual variability to children’s inferences in the food domain, we followed an individual approach. We expected that children would generalize the positive properties to familiar foods and, in contrast, that they would generalize more often the negative properties to unfamiliar foods. However, we expected that children would generalize more positive and less negative properties to unfamiliar sliced foods than to whole unfamiliar foods. Finally, we expected that children displaying higher levels of food rejections would generalize more negative properties than children displaying lower levels of food rejections. One-hundred and twenty-six children, aged 3–6 years, performed an induction task in which they had to generalize positive or negative health-related properties to familiar or unfamiliar foods, whole or sliced. We measured children’s probability of generalization for positive and negative properties. The children’s food rejection score was assessed on a standardized scale. Results indicated that children evaluated positively familiar foods (regardless of processing), whereas they tend to view unfamiliar food negatively. In contrast, children were at chance for processed unfamiliar foods. Furthermore, children displaying higher levels of food rejections were more likely to generalize the negative properties to all kinds of foods than children displaying lower levels of food rejections. These findings entitle us to hypothesize that knowledge-based food education programs should take into account the valence of the properties taught to children, as well as the state of processing of the food presented. Furthermore, one should take children’s interindividual differences into account because they influence how the knowledge gained through these programs may be generalized. (shrink)

Dawson's provocative comment makes three connected points: (1) to be falsifiable, theories that assume flexible features must constrain their feature creation and mechanisms, (2) the explanatory power of such functional theories is rooted in the properties of their underlying physical mechanisms, and (3) to derive the relevant constraints of feature creation from these mechanisms, it is critical to avoid the scope slip. We will argue here that even though we agree with (1) and (2), (3) confuses two different levels of (...) analysis of computational systems: the functional identification and the physical implementation of relevant constraints. (shrink)

The origin of features from nonfeatural information is a problem that should concern all theories of object categorization and recognition, not just the flexible feature approach. In contrast to the idea that new features must originate from combinations of simpler fixed features, we argue that holistic features can be created from a direct imprinting on the visual medium. Furthermore, featural descriptions can emerge from processes that by themselves do not operate on feature detectors. Once acquired, features can be decomposed into (...) component features if required by other categorizations. We therefore argue that it is not necessary to separate holistic and componential approaches to representations, because the latter is a development of the former. The requirements for representational flexibility outstrip the performance of any existing computational models, but specific mechanisms of feature creation are discussed and evaluated. Challenges for feature creation mechanisms are discussed together with the constraints (perceptual, statistical, functional, and task) they will need to satisfy. (shrink)

One of the key features of modern mathematics is the adoption of the abstract method. Our goal in this paper is to propose an explication of that method that is rooted in the history of the subject.

Le pédagogue Antoine de La Garanderie (1920-2010) laisse un héritage intellectuel particulièrement riche et stimulant. Le rayonnement de sa pensée au cours des trois dernières décennies, tant en France qu'à l'étranger, et son influence sur les pratiques pédagogiques, formatives, voire thérapeutiques, font de lui l'une des figures marquantes de notre culture contemporaine. Cet ouvrage explore trois grands champs de réflexion et de recherche : le premier concerne la validité et la pertinence, au plan épistémologique, des recherches qu'il a conduites, désignées (...) sous le terme générique de " Gestion mentale ", et en référence à d'autres courants de pensée ; le second aborde l'orientation générale des expérimentations pédagogiques ou didactiques auxquelles ces recherches ont donné lieu et dont il convient d'évaluer la portée et la valeur, tant heuristiques que praxéologiques ; le troisième relève des fondements proprement anthropologiques où s'enracinent ses concepts et ses propositions et qu'il importe autant de dévoiler que de situer : sa foi en l'éducabilité, sa conception de l'évolution et du progrès. (shrink)

This chapter first evokes the objects of chemistry and the role played by experimentation in the constitution of its objects. It then studies how chemists set up experimental protocols to deal with the dependence of chemical bodies on the inert or living environments in which they are found. To this end, its pays particular attention to the preparation of reference matrices for measurement and for the validation of results. In so doing, it stresses the fact that chemists use a dizzying (...) pluralism of instruments, procedures, reasonings, and methods in order to characterize and quantify substances, which are never truly detachable, except in the case of approximations satisfying particular objectives, from the empirical complex {apparatus-methods-chemical substances-associated medium} in which they are scrutinized. (shrink)

In a remarkable exchange between neuroscientist Jean-Pierre Changeux and philosopher Paul Ricoeur, this book explores the vexed territory between these...

Here Jean-Pierre Changeux elucidates our current knowledge of the human brain, taking an interdisciplinary approach and explaining in layman's terms the complex theories and scientific breakthroughs that have significantly improved our ...

La représentation et l'expression sont communément tenues pour caractéristiques des œuvres d'art. Les questions que soulèvent ces notions ont jalonné le développement de l'esthétique et durablement marqué les discussions autour desquelles un grand nombre de théories ont vu le jour en philosophie de l'art. Ce livre tente de les analyser en se frayant un chemin dans les difficultés qui leur sont liées, au carrefour des traditions et des courants qui s'en disputent aujourd'hui l'héritage.

There is no science that does not rest on a metaphysics, though typically it remains concealed. It is the responsibility of the philosopher to uncover this metaphysics, and then to subject it to criticism. What I have tried to show is that cybernetics, far from being the apotheosis of Cartesian humanism, as Heidegger supposed, actually represented a crucial moment in its demystification, and indeed in its deconstruction.

v. 1. A défaut-- la littérature -- v. 2. Arts et philosophie mêlés.

Aborde de nombreux thèmes, notamment : la vérité en mathématiques, la construction du vrai dans le développement cognitif de l'enfant, la procédure de Ramsey et le problème du réalisme scientifique, les relations de l'astrophysique et de la cosmologie avec l'observation.

Les fondements de la théorie du choix rationnel, dans ses multiples déclinaisons (économie théorique, théorie de la décision, théorie des jeux, théorie de l'action que l'on trouve au cœur de la philosophie analytique, etc.), ne sont plus aussi assurés en cette fin du XXe siècle qu'ils semblaient l'être durant, ou immédiatement après, la Seconde Guerre mondiale, lorsqu'un John von Neumann ou un Leonard Savage en posaient les prolégomènes. A la source des difficultés présentes, on trouve l'ambition croissante de la théorie (...) du choix rationnel d'expliquer, et surtout de fonder, des phénomènes très éloignés du champ à l'intérieur duquel elle s'était d'abord confinée. Le défi le plus grand que le choix rationnel s'est fixé à lui-même est de rendre compte de la possibilité du jugement moral dans un monde d'individus isolés, autonomes et intéressés (et notamment de la promesse, de l'engagement, du contrat, de la parole donnée et tenue, de la menace, de la dissuasion crédible et efficace). C'est en tentant de relever ces défis que les théoriciens ont rencontré sur leur chemin, comme autant d'obstacles inattendus, des paradoxes redoutables. Ce livre présente les recherches les plus récentes dans le domaine. Il s'en dégage la thèse que le paradigme de la rationalité est radicalement incomplet. L'idéal de transparence qui est au cœur de la théorie du choix rationnel est incapable de venir à bout de l'extériorité et de l'opacité du collectif. Si elles ne prenaient appui sur des références extérieures qui les guident en les " poussant ", les interactions entre acteurs rationnels seraient en général incapables de produire à elles seules quoi que ce soit de déterminé. Les recherches ici présentées s'attachent à définir ce que sont ces dispositifs collectifs cognitifs qui encadrent et servent de support aux décisions individuelles. Elles s'inscrivent dans cette synergie entre sciences sociales, sciences cognitives et philosophie qui renouvelle aujourd'hui les sciences de l'homme. (shrink)

La philosophie de Bolzano est a la source d'une tradition de pensee dont l'importance et l'originalite n'ont pas encore ete appreciees a leur juste mesure. En 1997, 160 ans apres la publication de son chef d'oeuvre, la Wissenschaftslehre, a eu lieu, a Cerisy-la-Salle, un colloque destine a examiner l'interet historique actuel de cette tradition qui s'etend jusqu'a Musil et a la seconde guerre mondiale. Ce volume est destine a offrir une vision panoramique, enrichie de plusieurs etudes de detail, des idees (...) et des oeuvres qui, de Bolzano a Musil, ont renouvele le champ intellectuel et philosophique europeen. (shrink)

As scholars have shown, acceptance is key to the success of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme. While many studies adopt a static cost-benefit perspective, few address the social process leading to acceptance. Drawing on Suchman (1995), this article examines the legitimacy process underlying the acceptance of a PES in agriculture. In particular, the role of collective action in the legitimisation process is analysed, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods of discourse analysis. Data from an agro-environmental PES scheme (...) in France on water quality shows that acceptance depends on the normative and cognitive legitimacy that actors confer upon a public policy. (shrink)

Anthony Feneuil : Une question concernant votre parcours : pourquoi avoir choisi l'incroyance comme thème de prédilection? Comment y êtes-vous venu et quels sont selon vous les enjeux d’une histoire de l’incroyance aujourd’hui? Est-ce qu'ils sont d'abord épistémologiques (parce que la question de l'incroyance pose des questions à l'historien sur les sources qu'il utilise et leurs biais, oblige à se poser la question des rapports de pouvoir etc.)? Sont-ils politiques? Il est vrai que l'inc...

Notre propos est de donner des bases philosophiques à la réalité vis-à-vis d'une tradition de la pensée qui y serait passée à côté. La réalité étant ce qui est le plus direct pour nous, ce qui est vrai, demande aussi dans un second temps, l'élaboration d'un système de pensée qui puisse la rendre telle qu'elle est. Ce qui a été pendant longtemps perçu comme "naïf", à savoir le réalisme le plus pur, fut sans doute un solide préjugé à la fois (...) de l'antique et de la moderne étude sur l'être, et qui pour s'en défaire auraient dû saisir tous les enjeux d'un rapport plus concret à celui-ci. Cela aurait pu se faire en revenant à l'essentiel de l'expérience face aux divers objets réels du monde. C'est sur cette négligence que nous avons concentré nos réflexions, puisqu'il en va de la conception quotidienne sur la réalité qui nous entoure, et tout aussi bien de la validité de la science qui repose sur elle. Face à une pensée abstraite reposant sur le sujet et la psychologie, il nous a fallu revenir aux fondements des choses : les faits matériels qui anticipent toute connaissance. Ainsi, la connaissance théorique apporte des résultats positifs surtout quand elle vient appuyer les observations rigoureuses d'où elle part. En clair, nous avons voulu suivre la réalité comme condition de toute démonstration. (shrink)

La méthode critique et historique adoptée par S. al `Azm touche aux divers domaines et révèle son souci de traiter de n'importe quel fait en vertu des exigences de l'esprit scientifique. lI s'en sert pour accéder à des vérités établies sur des bases réelles et scientifiques tout en récusant l'approche conceptuelle et figée de la réalité. Ne visant pas uniquement et arbitrairement la déconstruction des idéologies religieuses et politiques, il conçoit une société arabe affranchie des contraintes aveugles exercées par l'autorité (...) politique et religieuse. Une société débarrassée de ses illusions religieuses ainsi que de ses appartenances confessionnelles et fanatiques, et fondée sur des bases laïques et socialistes. (shrink)

In this paper the descriptions of the relation semi-algebra generated by an equivalence element and the relation algebra generated by an equivalence element are unified by functorial constructions. Here the developed techniques and ideas lead to a more manageable conceptual construction of universal objects for the functors of squares and special congruences.

Amidst the many brain events evoked by a visual stimulus, which are specifically associated with conscious perception, and which merely reflect non-conscious processing? Several recent neuroimaging studies have contrasted conscious and non-conscious visual processing, but their results appear inconsistent. Some support a correlation of conscious perception with early occipital events, others with late parieto-frontal activity. Here we attempt to make sense of those dissenting results. On the basis of a minimal neuro-computational model, the global neuronal workspace hypothesis, we propose a (...) taxonomy which distinguishes between vigilance and access to conscious report, as well as between subliminal, preconscious and conscious processing. We suggest that these distinctions map onto different neural mechanisms, and that conscious perception is systematically associated with a sudden surge of parieto-frontal activity causing top-down amplification. (shrink)

1 INSERM-CEA Unit 562, Cognitive Neuroimaging, Service Hospitalier Fre´de´ric Joliot, Orsay, France, 2 CNRS URA2182 Re´cepteurs and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.

It is commonly assumed across the language sciences that some semantic participant information is lexically encoded in the representation of verbs and some is not. In this paper, we propose that semantic obligatoriness and verb class specificity are criteria which influence whether semantic information is lexically encoded. We present a comprehensive survey of the English verbal lexicon, a sentence continuation study, and an on-line sentence processing study which confirm that both factors play a role in the lexical encoding of participant (...) information. (shrink)

The “Neuronal man”, as Changeux has called him, is now credited with an aesthetic mind. This mind is not the “Geist” of the philosophical tradition. The cognitive sciences have took over from philosophy and now they deal with art and aesthetics as they do with whatever aspect of human thought, experience and activity. Philosophers like Kant were interested in the empirical sources of beauty, but for him empirical features of its development did not change anything at all to its very (...) essence. The naturalism implemented in the philosophy of mind and sciences of cognition has changed the terms of the question, so that the main point in discussion is whether aesthetic experience can be explained in terms of brain and/or computational process or whether it should be considered as irreductible to empirical or physical facts. These debates can be seen as new and interesting, but they drive directly to an aporia reminding in a certain way the old debate between the "Sons of the ground" and the "Friends of ideas". (shrink)

Tychastic viability is defined in an uncertain dynamical framework and used for providing a “viability risk eradication measure”, first, by delineating the set of initial conditions from which all evolutions satisfy viability constraints, second, for the other “risky” initial states, by introducing their duration index. This approach provides an alternative to the stochastic representation of chance and these two measures replace the statistical measures (expectation, variance, etc).

1. ProlégomènesL’usage de méthodes mathématiques pour traiter de données textuelles a une longue tradition. On se souvient que c’est en étudiant Pouchkine que Markov a élaboré ses chaînes. La linguistique mathématique (qui dépasse de très loin l’analyse des données textuelles) a connu un peu partout un essor important et a fourni des modèles à bon nombre de travaux portant sur le langage (Chomsky, Harris, Montague, …). On connaît aussi, via des mathématiques fort sophistiquées, la profonde in..

1. ProlégomènesL’usage de méthodes mathématiques pour traiter de données textuelles a une longue tradition. On se souvient que c’est en étudiant Pouchkine que Markov a élaboré ses chaînes. La linguistique mathématique (qui dépasse de très loin l’analyse des données textuelles) a connu un peu partout un essor important et a fourni des modèles à bon nombre de travaux portant sur le langage (Chomsky, Harris, Montague, …). On connaît aussi, via des mathématiques fort sophistiquées, la profonde in...

Le présent article porte sur les débats relatifs à la Forme que doit prendre l'appareil de collecte de données statistiques pour faire face aux transformations que connaissent les sociétés occidentales depuis le début du XIXe siècle. C'est au moment de la mise sur pied, en 1832, du Bureau statistique du Board of Trade britannique que sont avancés pour la première fois les arguments en faveur de la coordination, de la centralisation ou de la décentralisation en matière statistique. Jusqu'en 1945, ce (...) débat sera un des mieux alimentés, le décollage des économies, les guerres mondiales, la crise des années trente offrant aux protagonistes l'occasion de s'interroger sur la forme que doit prendre le système de collecte et d'analyse des données statistiques. La perspective que nous adopterons ici se distingue par sa double amplitude: ainsi, ne nous limitant pas aux grands systèmes statistiques, ceux de GrandeBretagne, de France et des États-Unis, nous croiserons les fils des histoires nationales de la plupart des pays occidentaux; de plus, ne nous en tenant pas à la période où naissent la plupart des bureaux statistiques, soit le XIXe siècle, nous embrasserons l'ensemble de la période s'étendant de 1800 à 1945. (shrink)