Recenzja: Mark van Roojen, Metaethics: A Contemporary Introduction, New York and London, Routledge, 2015.

The following text is a voice in the discussion around normative problems of innovative therapies. It particularly refers to the amendment to the Polish Act on the Professions of Physician and Dentist, also discussed in this issue in the article by Rafał Kubiak "Criminal liability for crimes related to the illegal conduct of a medical experiment.".

Expression of physical motion (e.g., man runs by) shows systematic variability not only between language types (i.e., inter-typological) but also within a language type (i.e., intra-typological). In this study, we asked whether the patterns of variability extend to metaphorical motion events (e.g., time runs by). Our analysis of randomly selected 450 physical motion (150/language) and 450 metaphorical motion (150/language) event descriptions from written texts originally produced by German, Polish, and Spanish authors showed strong inter-typological differences in the expression of both (...) event types. German and Polish speakers differed from Spanish speakers in how they packaged manner and path components of a motion event; they also differed in how extensively they expressed each component in their lexicalization of motion. The strong inter-typological differences were accompanied by more modest intra-typological variability: Polish and German writers differed in their packaging and lexicalization of manner and path components of metaphorical—but not physical—motion events. Our results provide evidence for robust inter-typological differences evident in the expression of both physical and metaphorical motion, along with less robust intra-typological differences, largely evident in the expression of metaphorical motion. Our study thus highlights event type as an important factor in determining crosslinguistic variation in motion expression. (shrink)

During the last half of the twentieth century, legal philosophy (or legal theory or jurisprudence) has grown significantly. It is no longer the domain of a few isolated scholars in law and philosophy. Hundreds of scholars from diverse fields attend international meetings on the subject. In some universities, large lecture courses of five hundred students or more study it. The primary aim of the Law and Philosophy Library is to present some of the best original work on legal philosophy from (...) both the Anglo-American and European traditions. Not only does it help make some of the best work avail able to an international audience, but it also encourages increased awareness of, and interaction between, the two major traditions. The primary focus is on full-length scholarly monographs, although some edited volumes of original papers are also included. The Library editors are assisted by an Editorial Advisory Board of internationally renowed scholars. Legal philosophy should not be considered a narrowly circumscribed field. (shrink)

Traditional martial arts continue to be interesting and inspiring to many people around the globe. Some of their contemporary adaptations attract enthusiasts for whom they are especially important. In this article, the author bases his observations on his own long-term participation. The analysis takes into account the influence of the perspectives of Jigoro Kano and several other creators of modern varieties of Japanese budo. It can be concluded that regular, even daily, practice—cultivating martial arts and internalizing its values—co-creates the lifestyle (...) of instructors and advanced students. (shrink)

We characterize all finitary consequence relations over S4.3, both syntactically, by exhibiting so-called passive rules that extend the given logic, and semantically, by providing suitable strongly adequate classes of algebras. This is achieved by applying an earlier result stating that a modal logic L extending S4 has projective unification if and only if L contains S4.3. In particular, we show that these consequence relations enjoy the strong finite model property, and are finitely based. In this way, we extend the known (...) results by Bull and Fine, from logics, to consequence relations. We also show that the lattice of consequence relations over S4.3 is countable and distributive and it forms a Heyting algebra. (shrink)

This book challenges the widespread view of Kierkegaard’s idiosyncratic and predominantly religious position on mimesis. -/- Taking mimesis as a crucial conceptual point of reference in reading Kierkegaard, this book offers a nuanced understanding of the relation between aesthetics and religion in his thought. Kaftanski shows how Kierkegaard's dialectical-existential reading of mimesis interlaces aesthetic and religious themes, including the familiar core concepts of imitation, repetition, and admiration as well as the newly arisen notions of affectivity, contagion, and crowd behavior. Kierkegaard’s (...) enduring relevance to the malaises of our own day is firmly established by his classic concern for the meaning of human life informed by reflective meditation on the mimeticorigins of the contemporary age.​ -/- Kierkegaard, Mimesis, and Modernity will be of interest to scholars and advanced students working on Kierkegaard, Continental philosophy, the history of aesthetics, and critical and religious studies. (shrink)

Are there things that we must never do, no matter how untypical the circumstances and “unorthodox” our deontic ideas might be? In this essay I try to make evident that acts I call “pure sadist acts” satisfy this description. I discuss several examples of such acts and alert to their being not always easy to distinguish from certain others. Norms prohibiting such acts I call “true”, and I suggest that other, less suggestive, norms might also be (derivatively) true, if the (...) pertinent acts stand in certain relations with the former ones. I incorporate some ideas from Hume, as well as from elementary model theory, to make mine clearer. (shrink)

The introduction of the concept of the field of rationality and its correlates (the field of potentiality and the formal field) by Józef Życiński and Michał (Michael) Heller opened up space for the philosophical explanation of the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in capturing regularities built into the physical reality. The presented study is a response to the clear incentive of these authors towards the development of the understanding and applicability of these concepts. It is argued that identifying symmetries within the (...) field of rationality not only helps to articulate the fundamental role of symmetries in physics but also provides a better grasp on the issue of potentialities for the emergence of complexity in the Universe. Additionally, some global properties of this field can be more deeply comprehended. By indicating the drawbacks and limitations of this approach, perspectives for further inquiry into the meaning and usefulness are suggested. (shrink)

ABSTRACT This article argues for a unique role of imagination and mental images in the moral education of students. Imagination is rendered here as a capacity oriented toward realizable and salient goals; mental images are understood as particular future-oriented self-representations (FOSRs) devised by and held in imagination. FOSRs have four moral attributes: they are 1) expressive of us as moral agents, 2) shape our moral identity, 3) serve as moral pointers, and 4) help devise mitigating strategies. FOSRs can be created (...) and utilized in educational settings to further the goals of moral education by i) fostering sensitivity to moral situations among students, ii) motivating learners to act morally, iii) facilitating environments supportive of moral practice and moral habituation, and iv) helping strengthen cross-situational consistency of moral action. The four moral attributes of future-oriented self-representations (FOSRs) (1–4) that are to be engaged in moral education to further its goals (i–iv) are correlated with four elements of moral education, namely: a) moral awareness; b) moral competency; c) moral motivation; and d) moral capacity. To argue for the special role of imagination and mental images in moral education this paper integrates philosophical research and conceptual and empirical studies in psychology and education on the morality of imagination and mental images. (shrink)

Self-esteem and emotional reactivity may be important personality determinants of human functioning in situations of social exposure. In this study, we compared the levels of these personality variables in a group of professional theater actors and a group of professional illusionists with a control group of participants who were neither actors nor illusionists and had no artistic education. We also examined the correlations between emotional reactivity and self-esteem in the three groups. For emotional reactivity, we found (1) very strong evidence (...) that the level is less for magicians than for controls, (2) substantial evidence that the level is less for magicians than for actors, (3) anecdotal evidence that the level is less for actors than for controls, and (4) decisive evidence that the average score is less for males than for females. For self-esteem, we found (1) anecdotal evidence that the level is higher for magicians than for controls, (2) substantial evidence that there is no difference between actors and magicians, (3) anecdotal evidence against a difference between actors and controls, and (4) anecdotal evidence against a difference between males and females. Based on the entire sample we found a moderate correlation between self-esteem and emotional reactivity (r = -.30, p < 0.001). Our results are compatible with the notion that emotional reactivity – as part of the temperament concept – is a factor influencing the choice of an artistic profession. (shrink)

Unraveling molecular and functional heterogeneity of niche cells within the developing endoderm could resolve mechanisms of tissue formation and maturation. Here, we discuss current unknowns in molecular mechanisms underlying key developmental events in pancreatic islet and intestinal epithelial formation. Recent breakthroughs in single‐cell and spatial transcriptomics, paralleled with functional studies in vitro, reveal that specialized mesenchymal subtypes drive the formation and maturation of pancreatic endocrine cells and islets via local interactions with epithelium, neurons, and microvessels. Analogous to this, distinct intestinal (...) niche cells regulate both epithelial development and homeostasis throughout life. We propose how this knowledge can be used to progress research in the human context using pluripotent stem cell‐derived multilineage organoids. Overall, understanding the interactions between the multitude of microenvironmental cells and how they drive tissue development and function could help us make more therapeutically relevant in vitro models. (shrink)

The expression of physical motion (the spider crawls across the net) and metaphorical motion (the fear crawls across her heart) shows strong inter-typological differences between language types (German, an S-language vs. Spanish, a V-language) and more subtle intra-typological differences within a language type (German vs. Polish, both S-languages). However, we know relatively less about the extension of these patterns to translated texts. In this study, we focused on physical and metaphorical motion descriptions in written texts in original language and their (...) translations to a language that belongs to the same or a different typological group, to determine whether motion expression in translated texts shows the same patterns of inter-typological and intra-typological variability as it does in original texts. We investigated this question by extracting 450 physical motion (150/language) and 450 metaphorical motion (150/language) descriptions from novels originally written in German, Polish, or Spanish and their translations to typologically different (i.e. inter-typological; German to Spanish, Spanish to German) or typologically similar (i.e. intra-typological; German to Polish, Polish to German) languages. Our results provided evidence for similar patterns of strong inter-typological and more subtle intra-typological variability in translations akin to those observed in original texts – with translated texts largely following the patterns of the target language in their expression of physical and metaphorical motion. Our results also highlighted specificity of event expression in a language as an important factor in the attainment of target language patterns in translated texts. (shrink)

Polskie przepisy prawne formułujące warunki dopuszczalności eksperymentu medycznego, a więc ipso facto wyznaczające jego granice, można różnorako interpretować, zwłaszcza w tym zakresie, w jakim określają wymagany dla przeprowadzenia eksperymentu bilans związanych z nim możliwych korzyści i szkód. W artykułach prawniczych komentujących te przepisy w zasadzie jednak brak prób systematycznego i (na tyle, na ile pozwala na to sam przedmiot analizy) ścisłego wyróżnienia tych interpretacji w języku tzw. teorii racjonalnego wyboru (rational choice theory), teorii szczególnie przydatnej w tym kontekście z uwagi (...) na jej rozbudowany aparat pojęciowy pozwalający badać różnorakie konfiguracje relacji między costs i benefits. Artykuł próbuje wypełnić tę lukę: wyróżnione w nim zostały różne interpretacje przepisów prawnych określających warunki dopuszczalności eksperymentu medycznego; interpretacje te zostały również poddane ocenie. (shrink)

The thesis that legal norms are rooted in theology is not new. It is worth considering, however, to what extent not only singular norms, but also models of normativity are the structural representation of theological concepts. In this article, I consider transubstantiation as one of such ideas. I analyse its place in two political theologies published at the same time (in 1922): Carl Schmitt’s Political Theology and James Joyce’s Ulysses. I argue that both thinkers used the idea of transubstantiation as (...) a normative mechanism to deal with anomie that encompassed European societies after the First World War. (shrink)

By spelling out the affective dimension of admiration, this paper challenges the view of admiration as a trustworthy means of detecting morally desirable qualities in exemplars. Such a view of admiration, foundational for the current debate on exemplars in moral education, holds that admiration is a self-motivating emotion essentially oriented toward the good and the excellent. I demonstrate that this view ignores the affective aspects of admiration explored widely in the history of philosophy on which the debate on moral exemplars (...) substantially draws. Focusing on Spinoza, Smith, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche, I bring to light their largely skeptical views of the moral value of admiration. These thinkers indicate that admiration can be influenced by, and is often conflated with, other emotions, and can arise in us through behavioral mimicry; moreover, admiration is often oriented toward the mediocre and corrupt, is contagious, self-referential, collective, and has limited motivational power. Their remarks on the affective dimension of admiration call into question admiration’s applicability and usefulness in moral exemplarity. (shrink)

With the meaning of trust, good faith and respect for promises made, protection, or assistance, fides in the non-exclusively religious sense of the word comes from the demand for ethical perfection: as such, it is omnipresent in human relations and in the dynamic of societies in the Middle Ages.

We explore how conspiracy beliefs change the effectiveness of gain- vs. loss-framed messages in promoting health-protective behavior. We focused on various recommended COVID-19 protective measures, not only vaccinations but also other preventive (like wearing masks) and detection behaviors (like testing). Our results indicate that conspiracy beliefs moderate the effectiveness of gain vs. loss framing. When participants endorse conspiracy worldviews above the average level, the gain frame may be more effective than the loss frame. In other words, in the loss frame (...) condition, conspiracy beliefs negatively and significantly predicted attitudes toward the behavior recommended. However, in the case of the gain frame, the relationship between conspiracist views and attitudes toward promoted behavior was weaker or even nonsignificant. We also found, although only in the case of one behavior, that when participants' eagerness to look for conspiracies almost does not exist, the loss frame may be a better option than the gain frame. Finally, neither of these effects was mediated by emotional reactance or anxiety. (shrink)

This article engages the considerations of imagination in Kierkegaard and Ricoeur to argue for a moral dimension of the imagination and its objects. Imaginary objects are taken to be mental representations in images and narratives of people or courses of action that are not real in the sense that they are not actual, or have not yet happened. Three claims are made in the article. First, by drawing on the category of possibility, a conceptual distinction is established between imagination and (...) fantasy, (1) I claim that imagination has a moral dimension because it is engaged in considering real-life possibilities. Second, (2) drawing on Kierkegaard and Ricoeur, it is argued that mental representations of selfhood in imagination have a moral dimension because they essentially allow people to understand the development of agency in human selfhood by means of representations of would-be selves and narrative figurations of the self. Third, (3) mental representations of human selves have a moral dimension because they form important points of reference for moral orientations in the field of human praxis (moral pointers). (shrink)

The Limits of Cognition and the Shape of Being Based on the Thought of Karl Jaspers The article points out the elements of Karl Jaspers’ epistemological conception that cross out the possibility of a comprehensive account of being. The key issue here is the limits of cognition, which take the form of object cognition. The theme of limits points to the inadequacies of human thinking in the context of quantifiable and absolutist representations of reality. The impossibility of adequately grasping the (...) totality of reality will be illustrated here by means of the criticism Jaspers levelled at absolutising metaphysics. In connection with the description of the structure of cognition proposed by Jaspers, the article points out the conceptual proximity of the issue of worldview and metaphysics in the light of the thought of the cited author. (shrink)

The article is dedicated to the problems of European political identity and European identity as a whole conception and as a foundation for European integration. Before 24 February 2022, European political identity had been in crisis. The contradictions between the EU member states seemed to be hardly resolvable. The Russian aggression against Ukraine gave a strong impetus to the formation of European identity. However, it is still a negative incentive for unity and solidarity rather than cohesion around positive values, as (...) well as from the outset the European integration was caused by devastating World War II as a negative experience, which should never be repeated. The text makes use of methods peculiar to the philosophical sciences, i.e. critical textual analysis, historical-analytical and comparative methods. (shrink)

In Zielonka (1981a, 1989), I found an axiomatics for the product-free calculus L of Lambek whose only rule is the cut rule. Following Buszkowski (1987), we shall call such an axiomatics linear. It was proved that there is no finite axiomatics of that kind. In Lambek's original version of the calculus (cf. Lambek, 1958), sequent antecedents are non empty. By dropping this restriction, we obtain the variant L0 of L. This modification, introduced in the early 1980s (see, e.g., Buszkowski, 1985; (...) Zielonka, 1981b), did not gain much popularity initially; a more common use of L0 has only occurred within the last few years (cf. Roorda, 1991: 29). In Zielonka (1988), I established analogous results for the restriction of L0 to sequents without left (or, equivalently, right) division. Here, I present a similar (cut-rule) axiomatics for the whole of L0.This paper is an extended, corrected, and completed version of Zielonka (1997). Unlike in Zielonka (1997), the notion of rank of an axiom is introduced which, although inessential for the results given below, may be useful for the expected non-finite-axiomatizability proof.The paper follows the same way of subject exposition as Zielonka (2000) but it is technically much less complicated. I restrict myself to giving bare results; all the ideological background is exactly the same as in case of the non-associative calculusNL0 and those who are interested in it are requested to consult the introductory section of Zielonka (2000). (shrink)

Unifiability of terms (and formulas) and structural completeness in the variety of relation algebras RA and in the products of modal logic S5 is investigated. Nonunifiable terms (formulas) which are satisfiable in varieties (in logics) are exhibited. Consequently, RA and products of S5 as well as representable diagonal-free n-dimensional cylindric algebras, RDfn, are almost structurally complete but not structurally complete. In case of S5n a basis for admissible rules and the form of all passive rules are provided.

In the paper, the formal model of the noetic synthesis functions is presented. Together with the functions of noematic synthesis, they are understood as components of functions of intentional reference, which are meant to be, in turn, formalizations of intentional acts of reference performed in the stream of consciousness. This research perspective allows us to extend the category of speech acts to the category of all intentional acts of reference. The functions of noetic synthesis are understood as composed of the (...) function of noetic intention acting on qualia, noetic moods and noetic modes. The model allows us to explain the phenomenon of autism as having its source in disorders of the noetic synthesis functions. The constructed model is not intended as the faithful reconstruction of the Husserlian conception of noesis. Intuitions of the creator of phenomenology are treated as the only source of inspiration. (shrink)

We propose a non-standard interpretation of Alternating-time Temporal Logic with imperfect information, for which no commonly accepted semantics has been proposed yet. Rather than changing the semantic structures, we generalize the usual interpretation of formulae in single states to sets of states. We also propose a new epistemic operator for ?practical? or ?constructive? knowledge, and we show that the new logic (which we call Constructive Strategic Logic) is strictly more expressive than most existing solutions, while it retains the same model (...) checking complexity. Finally, we study properties of constructive knowledge and other operators in this non-standard semantics. (shrink)

Early twelfth-century logicians invoked past-tensed statements with future-oriented contents to undermine the assumption that every proposition ‘about the past’ is determinate. In the second half of the century, the notion of future-dependence was used to restrict the scope of necessity per accidens. At some point, this idea began to be applied in theology to solve puzzles surrounding predestination, prescience, prophecy, and faith. In the mid-1160s, Magister Udo quotes some thinkers who insisted that the principle of the necessity of the past (...) should exclude dicta that ‘relate to the future’, such as that he has been predestined. Peter of Poitiers adopted this ‘Ockhamist’ strategy around 1170. We find similar accounts in Simon of Tournai and Alan of Lille, who invoked it in other contexts as well. By the time of Praepositinus of Cremona, Hubert of Pirovano, and Stephen Langton, the restricted principle became something of a common view at Paris. (shrink)

The author examines the critique of the epoch, which German philosopher of law and political theoretician Carl Schmitt worked out in the 1920s. Since this topic is present in most of Schmitt’s works from that period, author chose to discuss three, in which this subject isn’t considered on the margins, but on the foreground: a text concerning the poem by Theodor Däubler Nordlicht, Political Romanticism and Age of Neutralizations and Depoliticizations. While the latter is well known in Poland, the first (...) two – a little worse, as well as the whole reflection and biography of Carl Schmitt in that period. The consistency with which Schmitt engaged in the criticism of the times in which he lived, allows us to show how he was born as a political thinker: main ideas of his political theology have their source in the criticism of the era. In addition, the author presents criticism created by Schmitt on the background of that one developed by other thinkers, to point out the differences between this two approaches to the same epoch. The aim of the study is, first, to bring Polish reader closer to the not-so-well-studied period of Schmitt’s reflection and biography (by reaching beyond the above-mentioned works also to the journal of Carl Schmitt, as well as his youthful literary work Schattenrisse, written together with Fritz Eisler), secondly: to present Schmitt as an original thinker of his era. (shrink)

Tekst stanowi próbę pomyślenia instytucji stanu wyjątkowego w ramach logiki monistycznej, która by nie naruszała podstaw demokracji liberalnej: jako instrumentu prawnego do zwalczenia zagrożenia, przed którym stoi państwo, przy użyciu narzędzi z porządku norm sprzed wystąpienia sytuacji ekstraordynaryjnej. Autor analizuje trzy możliwości takiej logiki, wywodząc ją z koncepcji m. in. libertarianizmu Roberta Nozicka, instytucjonalizmu Nomi Claire Lazar czy liberalnego realizmu Jeremy’ego Waldrona i aplikując do zapisów Konstytucji RP z 1997 r.

Celem artykułu jest ukazanie roli, jaką w elekcji w 1697 r. odegrał nuncjusz Giovanni Antonio Davia. Artykuł napisano na podstawie wydanej i niewy- danej korespondencji nuncjusza Davii z sekretariatem stanu, znajdującej się w Archiwum Watykańskim i Bibliotece Watykańskiej. Po śmierci króla Jana III Sobieskiego elekcja, jaka odbyła się w 1697 r., należała do naj- bardziej skorumpowanych. Wśród szeregu kandydatów najpoważniejsze szanse zdobycia korony mieli syn króla Jana III, Jakub i Ludwik de Bourbon, książę de Conti. Ku zaskoczeniu zgromadzonej na polu (...) elekcyjnym szlachty w ostatnim momencie zgłoszono kandydaturę elektora protestanckiej Saksonii, Fryderyka Augusta Wettyna, który wcześniej dokonał potajemnej konwersji na katolicyzm. Aby dopełnić formalności konwersję Fryderyka Augusta na katolicyzm, zachowywaną od 2 czerwca 1697 r. w sekrecie, musiał uwierzytelnić nuncjusz Davia. Nuncjusz nie uległ naciskom zwolen- ników francuskiej kandydatury dążących do zablokowania elekcji Wettyna i wydał opinię o jej ważności. Z tego powodu został oskarżony przez przeciwników Wettyna o działania niezgodne z prawem, jak również kie- rowanie się prywatnym interesem, gdyż nuncjusz Davia wstawiennictwu Fryderyka Augusta zawdzięczał uwolnienie bratanka z niewoli tureckiej. Należy stwierdzić, iż na skutek splotu różnych okoliczności arcybiskup Davia musiał wystapić w Warszawie w roli, jakiej nie przewidywano dla papieskiego nuncjusza, to znaczy przedstawiciela papieża zachowujące- go wobec wewnętrznych konfliktów neutralne stanowisko. Kandydatura, a następnie konwersja na katolicyzm władcy Saksonii zmusiła nuncjusza do podjęcia działań z jednej strony chwalonych przez stronników saskich, a z drugiej kontestowanych przez zwolenników obozu francuskiego. Wbrew jednak oskarżeniom wysuwanym przez tych ostatnich można się skłonić do sądu, że to nie prywatne motywy, lecz interes Kościoła katolickiego skłoniły nuncjusza do uwierzytelnienia konwersji Fryderyka Augusta Wet- tyna na katolicyzm. (shrink)

W 1768 roku Turcja zagrożona ekspansywną polityką Moskwy, w tym zwłaszcza rozwojem sytuacji w Rzeczypospolitej, wypowiedziała Rosji wojnę. Toczyła się ona do 1774 roku i zakończona została klęską Turcji i podpisaniem pokoju w Küczük Kajnardży, na mocy którego Rosja umocniła się kosztem Turcji w basenie Morza Czarnego, a caryca Katarzyna II zrealizowała dążenia podjęte już za Piotra I Wielkiego. Zmagania wojenne Rosji z Turcją obserwowane były w Rzymie z dużą uwagą, a nuncjusze papiescy starali się nadsyłać do Rzymu wszelkie informacje, (...) jakimi dysponowali na ten temat. Stolica Apostolska w swoich zabiegach dotyczących ratowania statusu Kościoła katolickiego w Rzeczypospolitej musiała też uwzględniać przebieg wojny rosyjsko-tureckiej. Ten istotny aspekt polityki Stolicy Apostolskiej nie był dotychczas poruszany w literaturze przedmiotu – zarówno polskiej, jak i obcej – stąd też niniejszy artykuł jest pierwszą próbą podjęcia tego tematu. Informacji na temat wojny papiescy dyplomaci przesyłali wiele. Pochodziły one nie tylko z dworów, przy których byli akredytowani, lecz także od ich informatorów. Często jednak wiele z tych wieści, co w tym czasie było normą, nie było zbyt dokładnych lub zawierało nieprawdziwe dane, lecz w Sekretariacie Stanu konfrontowano je z innymi źródłami, sprawdzając ich wiarygodność, tak że obraz wojny uzyskany tą drogą dawał dobrą orientację zarówno w przebiegu konfliktu, jak i staraniach dyplomatycznych mających na celu doprowadzenie do zawarcia pokoju. Szczególnie bałamutne były informacje napływające z pogranicza turecko-rosyjskiego i pogranicznych ziem Rzeczypospolitej, sugerujące rozszerzenie konfliktu rosyjsko-tureckiego na Rzeczypospolitą. Jednak konfrontacja informacji napływających z różnych źródeł pozwalała kierownikom dyplomacji papieskiej na odtworzenie w sumie poprawnego obrazu wojny. Nuncjusze papiescy trafnie interpretowali też intencje poszczególnych krajów czy to zaangażowanych w konflikt, czy działania dyplomatyczne mające na celu doprowadzenie do pokoju, jak również realizację interesów poszczególnych państw. (shrink)

Artykuł przedstawia analizę historii zakończeń dwóch wierszy Anny Kamieńskiej – „Kiedy odchodzą wielcy” oraz „Jesteś mi ciepły młody”. Znane nam dokumenty literackie pozwalają znaleźć wspólny element tych dwóch procesów, z których jeden polegał na nieoczekiwanym dopisaniem puenty do ostatniej znanej nam wersji rękopiśmiennej wiersza, a drugi puentą uczynił w ostatnim etapie prac nad utworem zapis ze środka wcześniejszego brulionu. Tą częścią wspólną jest medytacyjny, nieretoryczny charakter warsztatu pisarskiego dojrzałej poetki. Jeśli pominąć oczywiste różnicy między obiema wierszami i procesami, z których (...) się wyłoniły, pozostanie silne podobieństwo, prawdopodobnie cecha charakterystyczna dla sposobu, w jaki pisała Anna Kamieńska przynajmniej od lat sześćdziesiątych minionego wieku, gdy proces twórczy był dla niej nie tyle okazją do znalezienia formy myśli, ale sam był myślorodny. (shrink)

Polnische und sowjetische Zwangsarbeiter, die in der nationalsozialistischen Ideologie als „Untermenschen“ galten, waren die am stärksten diskriminierten Nationalitäten unter den ausländischen Beschäftigten in der Kriegswirtschaft des „Dritten Reiches“. Ihre gesamten Lebens- und Arbeitsbedingungen waren der Rassenideologie untergeordnet. Diese Ideologie vertrug sich in hervorragender Weise mit der systematischen Ausbeutung ihrer Arbeitskraft. Das Ergebnis des Zwangsarbeitersystems war ein völlig repressives, sogar unmenschliches System mit miserablen Lebensbedingungen und minderwertiger medizinischer Versorgung. Sowohl die Lebensbedingungen als auch die medizinische Behandlung zeigen wie in einem Brennglas (...) die Hauptziele des NS-Staates und seinen rassistischen und entmenschlichten Charakter. Die im Nordosten Westfalens gelegene Stadt und der Landkreis Bielefeld sind aufgrund ihres gemischt industriellen und landwirtschaftlichen Charakters ein repräsentatives Beispiel für das brutale und repressive System der Zwangsarbeitsindustrie und spiegelt so das gesamte Spektrum der mit der Zwangsarbeit verbundenen Probleme wider. Die Analyse der medizinischen Versorgung im Raum Bielefeld ermöglicht die Unterscheidung zweier Gruppen polnischer Zwangsarbeiter. Die erste Gruppe besteht aus Personen, die in der Industrie beschäftigt sind, während die andere Gruppe eine gemischte Kategorie ist, die Arbeitnehmer aus den Bereichen Landwirtschaft, Dienstleistungssektor und Haushaltshilfe in Privathaushalten umfasst. In der ersten Gruppe war der Status der Arbeitnehmer in der Regel standardisiert. Die meisten von ihnen wurden in den Lagern untergebracht und einer brutalen und systematischen Ausbeutung unterzogen, die darauf ausgerichtet war, die Produktionseffekte zu maximieren und gleichzeitig Personen infolge widriger Arbeits- und Unterbringungsbedingungen und minimaler medizinischer Versorgung zu vernichten. Diese unmenschliche Behandlung war ein Derivat der rassistischen Ideologie. Status, Beschäftigungsbedingungen und medizinische Versorgung in der zweiten Gruppe waren viel uneinheitlicher und stärker von ganz unterschiedlichen Bedingungen abhängig. Wir haben es hier mit einer breiten Palette von Problemen zu tun, oft verbunden mit extrem unterschiedlichen Erfahrungen von Zwangsarbeitern mit dem medizinischen Personal und unterschiedlichen Einstellungen der Arbeitgeber zu den Zwangsarbeitern. Begrenzt wird die Aussagekraft unserer Darstellung durch die oft beschränkte Quellenlage. Insbesondere betrifft das den begrenzten Fundus an schriftlich festgehaltenen Erinnerungen der Zwangsarbeiter. Heute ist es praktisch unmöglich, das Quellenreservoir zu erweitern, da die Zeugen dieser Ereignisse nicht mehr zur Verfügung stehen. (shrink)

The phenomenon of luck poses a problem for ethics for two reasons. First, it makes it difficult to formulate homogeneous moral judgments for two or more actions which seem to be similar to each other in every morally relevant aspect except of some successful or unfortunate events that take place in one case and not in the other. The occurrence of these events wasn’t under control of any of the agents but for external observers it tends to be the basis (...) for more rigorous or more tolerant moral judgment in one case and not in the other. Second, luck can affect our sense of life through success or failure of ours existentially important life projects. This fact suggests necessity of conditions for morally permissible relying on luck in formulating and pursuing one’s life project. In this paper I present possibilities of applying main views on luck to resolve the above problems. (shrink)

Artykuł dotyczy doświadczenia moralnego podmiotu pozostającego poza siecią bliskich relacji. Analizuję dwie reguły niezależności moralnej, które mogłyby świadczyć o uprzywilejowaniu podmiotu w tego rodzaju sytuacjach. Zgodnie z pierwszą podmiot pozostający poza siecią relacji unika zagrożeń związanych z utożsamieniem z rolą społeczną. Zgodnie z drugą działania podejmowane przez podmiot charakteryzują się wyższym stopniem bezinteresowności, a co za tym idzie – większą wartością moralną. Argumentuję, że reguły te mogą mieć jedynie charakter prima facie i są ograniczone wieloma czynnikami. Wskazuję również, że uprzywilejowanie (...) podmiotu moralnego w sytuacji cudzoziemca jest równoważone przez trudności w działaniu moralnym w obszarze obietnic, praktyki obwiniania oraz współodpowiedzialności i troski. (shrink)