Ramscar and colleagues (2010, this volume) describe the “feature-label-order” (FLO) effect on category learning and characterize it as a constraint on symbolic learning. I argue that FLO is neither a constraint on symbolic learning in the sense of “learning elements of a symbol system” (instead, it is an effect on nonsymbolic, association learning) nor is it, more than any other constraint on category learning, a constraint on symbolic learning in the sense of “solving the symbol grounding problem.”.

People are habitual explanation generators. At its most mundane, our propensity to explain allows us to infer that we should not drink milk that smells sour; at the other extreme, it allows us to establish facts (e.g., theorems in mathematical logic) whose truth was not even known prior to the existence of the explanation (proof). What do the cognitive operations underlying the inference that the milk is sour have in common with the proof that, say, the square root of two (...) is irrational? Our ability to generate explanations bears striking similarities to our ability to make analogies. Both reflect a capacity to generate inferences and generalizations that go beyond the featural similarities between a novel problem and familiar problems in terms of which the novel problem may be understood. However, a notable difference between analogy-making and explanation-generation is that the former is a process in which a single source situation is used to reason about a single target, whereas the latter often requires the reasoner to integrate multiple sources of knowledge. This seemingly small difference poses a challenge to the task of marshaling our understanding of analogical reasoning to understanding explanation. We describe a model of explanation, derived from a model of analogy, adapted to permit systematic violations of this one-to-one mapping constraint. Simulation results demonstrate that the resulting model can generate explanations for novel explananda and that, like the explanations generated by human reasoners, these explanations vary in their coherence. (shrink)

Making good decisions in extremely complex and difficult processes and situations has always been both a key task as well as a challenge in the clinic and has led to a large amount of clinical, legal and ethical routines, protocols and reflections in order to guarantee fair, participatory and up-to-date pathways for clinical decision-making. Nevertheless, the complexity of processes and physical phenomena, time as well as economic constraints and not least further endeavours as well as achievements in medicine and healthcare (...) continuously raise the need to evaluate and to improve clinical decision-making. This article scrutinises if and how clinical decision-making processes are challenged by the rise of so-called artificial intelligence-driven decision support systems (AI-DSS). In a first step, this article analyses how the rise of AI-DSS will affect and transform the modes of interaction between different agents in the clinic. In a second step, we point out how these changing modes of interaction also imply shifts in the conditions of trustworthiness, epistemic challenges regarding transparency, the underlying normative concepts of agency and its embedding into concrete contexts of deployment and, finally, the consequences for (possible) ascriptions of responsibility. Third, we draw first conclusions for further steps regarding a ‘meaningful human control’ of clinical AI-DSS. (shrink)

Der Verfasser geht von der allgemeinen Unterscheidung zwischen Menschenrechten, Grundrechten und Bürgerrechten aus. Da diese Trennung terminologisch in den relevanten Europäischen Verträgen nicht vorgenommen wird, bemerkt er, dass eine strenge Trennung zwischen Menschen-, Grund- und Bürgerrechten nicht unbedingt notwendig und mitunter auch nicht sinnvoll ist. Daher orientiert er sich an den wichtigsten gemeinsamen Werten bei der gründlichen Analyse und Bewertung der gesetzlichen Normierung der Menschenrechte in der Europäischen Union: im Unionsvertrag, in der Charta der Grundrechte, in anderen Akten sowie in (...) der Praxis der europäischen Institutionen. Der Friede als Grundziel der europäischen Einigung kann vor allem durch die Freiheit und die Beachtung der Grundund Menschenrechte stabilisiert werden. Die wichtigste Grundlage für die Bildung einer gemeinsamen europäischen Identität ist das Sichbesinnen auf die gemeinsamen europäischen Werte und auf die Grund- und Menschenrechte, die den europäischen Kulturraum so besonders prägen und Europa eine Seele geben. (shrink)

The author starts with general differentiation between human, fundamental and civil rights. Considering that such distinction in terms isn’t supported in European conventions, he remarks that strict distinction between human, fundamental and civil rights isn’t unconditionally obligatory, and therefore meaningful. That’s why he focuses on common values through his thorough analysis and evaluation of legal standardization of human rights in the European Union: The treaty on European Union, Charter of fundamental rights, other documents and practises of European institutions. Peace, being (...) the basic aim of European unification, can remain stabile through ,,in the first line”, freedom and respect of fundamental and human rights. The most important foundation for developing common European identity is awareness of common European values and fundamental and human rights, which mark the European cultural space in a particular way and provide Europe with the spirit. (shrink)

L’auteur part de la distinction générale entre les droits de l’homme, les droits fondamentaux et les droits civiques. Etant donné que cette séparation terminologique n’est pas appliquée dans les traités européens, il note qu’une différenciation stricte entre les droits de l’homme, les droits fondamentaux et les droits civiques n’est pas indispensable, ni cohérente. C’est pourquoi il se tourne vers les valeurs communes en analysant et en évaluant la normalisation législative des droits de l’homme dans l’Union européenne : le Traité sur (...) l’Union européenne, la Charte des droits fondamentaux, ainsi que d’autres prescriptions et pratiques des institutions européennes. La paix, qui est le principal objectif de l’unification européenne, peut se maintenir surtout grâce à la liberté et le respect des droits fondamentaux et des droits de l’homme. Le pilier le plus important de la construction d’une identité européenne commune est la prise de conscience des valeurs européennes communes, des droits fondamentaux et des droits de l’homme qui marquent l’espace culturel européen de manière spécifique et qui constituent l’âme de l’Europe. (shrink)

Autor polazi od općeg razlikovanje između ljudskih, temeljnih i građanskih prava. Budući da takvo terminološko odvajanje nije provedeno u europskim ugovorima, primjećuje kako strogo razlučivanje između ljudskih, temeljnih i građanskih prava nije bezuvjetno nužno, a time ni smisleno. Stoga se orijentira na zajedničke vrednote pri temeljitoj analizi i vrednovanju zakonskoga normiranja ljudskih prava u Europskoj Uniji: Ugovora o Europskoj Uniji, Povelje o temeljnim pravima, drugih propisa i prakse europskih institucija. Mir kao osnovni cilj europskoga ujedinjenja može se stabilizirati prije svega (...) pomoću slobode i poštivanja temeljnih i ljudskih prava. Najvažnija je osnova za izgradnju zajedničkoga europskog identiteta osvješćivanje zajedničkih europskih vrednota te temeljnih i ljudskih prava koja europski kulturni prostor obilježuju na poseban način, a Europi daju dušu. (shrink)

In discourses on digitization and the data economy, it is often claimed that data subjects shall beownersof their data. In this paper, we provide a problem diagnosis for such calls fordata ownership: a large variety of demands are discussed under this heading. It thus becomes challenging to specify what—if anything—unites them. We identify four conceptual dimensions of calls for data ownership and argue that these help to systematize and to compare different positions. In view of this pluralism of data ownership (...) claims, we introduce, spell out and defend a constructive interpretative proposal: claims for data ownership are charitably understood as attempts to call for theredistributionof material resources and the socio-culturalrecognitionof data subjects. We argue that as one consequence of this reading, it misses the point to reject claims for data ownership on the grounds that property in data does not exist. Instead, data ownership brings to attention a claim to renegotiate such aspects of thestatus quo. (shrink)

Trust is one of the big buzzwords in debates about the shaping of society, democracy, and emerging technologies. For example, one prominent idea put forward by the High‐Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence appointed by the European Commission is that artificial intelligence should be trustworthy. In this essay, we explore the notion of trust and argue that both proponents and critics of trustworthy AI have flawed pictures of the nature of trust. We develop an approach to understanding trust in AI (...) that does not conceive of trust merely as an accelerator for societal acceptance of AI technologies. Instead, we argue, trust is granted through leaps of faith. For this reason, trust remains precarious, fragile, and resistant to promotion through formulaic approaches. We also highlight the significance of distrust in societal deliberation, as it is relevant to trust in various and intricate ways. Among the fruitful aspects of distrust is that it enables individuals to forgo technology if desired, to constrain its power, and to exercise meaningful human control. (shrink)

This paper argues that data-driven medicine gives rise to a particular normative challenge. Against the backdrop of a distinction between the good and the right, harnessing personal health data towards the development and refinement of data-driven medicine is to be welcomed from the perspective of the good. Enacting solidarity drives progress in research and clinical practice. At the same time, such acts of sharing could—especially considering current developments in big data and artificial intelligence—compromise the right by leading to injustices and (...) affecting concrete modes of individual self-determination. In order to address this potential tension, two key elements for ethical reflection on data-driven medicine are proposed: the controllability of information flows, including technical infrastructures that are conducive towards controllability, and a paradigm shift towards output-orientation in governance and policy. (shrink)

Research on sustainability assurance is still in its beginnings. One of the key questions in this field that also is of the highest practical relevance is concerned with the quality of the assurance process. However, a common understanding of assurance quality and how it should be measured is still missing. We try to close this gap by building on the financial audit literature. We introduce a definition of assurance quality that comprises two key aspects: the depth of the assurance process (...) and the breadth of the assurance statement. Based on prior research, we hypothesize that a firm’s sustainability performance is related to the depth of the assurance process, while the type of the assurance provider, more precisely the affiliation to the accounting profession, is related to the breadth of the assurance statement. Results for a sample of 122 European firms reveal a negative relationship between sustainability performance and assurance process depth as well as between the affiliation to the accounting profession and assurance statement breadth. Thus, we find evidence that poor sustainability performers ask for in-depth assurance services, most likely as a means to enhance their internal sustainability-related processes and systems. Assurance providers that do not belong to the accounting profession in turn are associated with broader assurance statements. (shrink)

Artificial intelligence is currently changing many areas of society. Especially in health, where critical decisions are made, questions of control must be renegotiated: who is in control when an automated system makes clinically relevant decisions? Increasingly, the concept of meaningful human control (MHC) is being invoked for this purpose. However, it is unclear exactly how this concept is to be understood in health. Through a systematic review, we present the current state of the concept of MHC in health. The results (...) show that there is not yet a robust MHC concept for health. We propose a broader understanding of MHC along three strands of action: enabling, exercising and evaluating control. Taking into account these strands of action and the established rules and processes in the different health sectors, the MHC concept needs to be further developed to avoid falling into two gaps, which we have described as theoretical and labelling gaps. (shrink)

Frontmatter -- Inhaltsverzeichnis -- Vorwort -- 1. Fichtes Religionsphilosophie in ihrem Verhältnis zum Johannesevangelium (1906) -- 2. Welche Bedeutung hat der Gegensatz von monistischer und dualistischer Weltanschauung für die christliche Religion? (1908) -- Welche Bedeutung hat der Gegensatz von monistischer und dualistischer Weltanschauung für die christliche Religion? (Schönschrift) -- 3. Die religionsgeschichtliche Konstruktion in Schellings positiver Philosophie, ihre Voraussetzungen und Prinzipien (1910) -- 4. Systematische Theologie von 1913 -- 5. Der Begriff des Übernatürlichen, sein dialektischer Charakter und das Prinzip der (...) Identität - dargestellt an der supranaturalistischen Theologie vor Schleiermacher (1915) -- Anhang: Literaturverzeichnis -- Namensregister -- Sachregister -- Backmatter. (shrink)

Business and love appear to have little to do with each other. We hold the opposite to be true if the concept of love in business draws from two corresponding grammars. This paper contributes to the ‘agenda for growth and affirmation of people and the environment’ in business. By focusing on the grammars of love and business we operationalize the concept of love in ways that business executives, managers and employees can understand, adopt, and implement. With references to the theory (...) and practice of management and organizations, we aim to contribute to expanding the theory and practice of responsible organizations and their leaders caring for others. (shrink)

Background Big data and AI applications now play a major role in many health contexts. Much research has already been conducted on ethical and social challenges associated with these technologies. Likewise, there are already some studies that investigate empirically which values and attitudes play a role in connection with their design and implementation. What is still in its infancy, however, is the comparative investigation of the perspectives of different stakeholders. Methods To explore this issue in a multi-faceted manner, we conducted (...) semi-structured interviews as well as focus group discussions with patients and clinicians. These empirical methods were used to gather interviewee’s views on the opportunities and challenges of medical AI and other data-intensive applications. Results Different clinician and patient groups are exposed to medical AI to differing degrees. Interviewees expect and demand that the purposes of data processing accord with patient preferences, and that data are put to effective use to generate social value. One central result is the shared tendency of clinicians and patients to maintain individualistic ascriptions of responsibility for clinical outcomes. Conclusions Medical AI and the proliferation of data with import for health-related inferences shape and partially reconfigure stakeholder expectations of how these technologies relate to the decision-making of human agents. Intuitions about individual responsibility for clinical outcomes could eventually be disrupted by the increasing sophistication of data-intensive and AI-driven clinical tools. Besides individual responsibility, systemic governance will be key to promote alignment with stakeholder expectations in AI-driven and data-intensive health settings. (shrink)

The discussion of the thesis that sociology is reducible to psychology generally suffers from two short-comings: first, it is usually not stated what is to be understood by the generally imprecise terms 'sociology', 'psychology' and 'reduction'. But this is a prerequisite for discussing the reductionism thesis at all. Secondly, it is usually only asserted apodictically or at best illustrated by some examples that a reduction is possible, without any systematic test of the thesis. In this paper the authors try to (...) avoid these short-comings. After having defined what they understand by 'sociology', 'psychology' and 'reduction' they reduce — in the sense defined — some central sociological terms like 'system', 'structure', etc. They then reduce some sociological to psychological statements and show the 'psychological' character of ecological, functional and contextual hypotheses. Finally, they deal with some consequences of the reductionism thesis for the advancement of theoretical sociology. The systematic test—which is reported much more extensively in another work not yet published — resulted in every case in a confirmation of the reductionism-thesis.1. (shrink)

Important features of space and time are taken to be missing in quantum gravity, allegedly requiring an explanation of the emergence of spacetime from non-spatio-temporal theories. In this paper, we argue that the explanatory gap between general relativity and non-spatio- temporal quantum gravity theories might significantly be reduced with two moves. First, we point out that spacetime is already partially missing in the context of general relativity when understood from a dynamical perspective. Second, we argue that most approaches to quantum (...) gravity already start with an in-built distinction between structures to which the asymmetry between space and time can be traced back. (shrink)

The understanding of food cue associated neural activations that predict future weight variability may guide the design of effective prevention programs and treatments for overeating and obesity. The current study investigated the association between brain response to different food odors with varied energy density and individual changes of body mass index (BMI) over two years. Twenty-five participants received high-fat (chocolate and peanut), low-fat (bread and peach) food odors and a nonfood odor (rose) while the brain activation was measured using functional (...) magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). BMIs were calculated with participant’s self-reported body weight and height collected at the time of fMRI scan and again at two years later. Regression analyses revealed significant negative correlations between BMI increase over 2 years and brain activation of the bilateral precuneus and the right posterior cingulate cortex in response to high-fat versus low-fat food odors. In addition, brain activation of the right supplementary motor area in response to food vs non-food odor was negatively correlated to subsequent BMI increase over 2 years. Taken together, the current findings suggest that individual differences in neural responsivity to (high calorie) food odors in brain regions of the default mode and motor control network serve as a neural marker for future BMI change. (shrink)

This open access book presents an ethical approach to utilizing personal medical data. It features essays that combine academic argument with practical application of ethical principles. The contributors are experts in ethics and law. They address the challenges in the re-use of medical data of the deceased on a voluntary basis. This pioneering study looks at the many factors involved when individuals and organizations wish to share information for research, policy-making, and humanitarian purposes. Today, it is easy to donate blood (...) or even organs, but it is virtually impossible to donate one’s own medical data. This is seen as ethically unacceptable. Yet, data donation can greatly benefit the welfare of our societies. This collection provides timely interdisciplinary research on biomedical big data. Topics include the ethics of data donation, the legal and regulatory challenges, and the current and future collaborations. Readers will learn about the ethical and regulatory challenges associated with medical data donations. They will also better understand the special nature of using deceased data for research purposes with regard to ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, and justice. In addition, the contributors identify the key governance issues of such a scheme. The essays also look at what we can learn in terms of best practice from existing medical data schemes. (shrink)