This paper explores how the Codex de la Cruz Badiano illustrates the ability of indigenous Mexicans to appropriate European forms to their own ends, even when seemingly conforming to European traditions and theories. To fully appreciate the Codex readers must reevaluate the concepts of literacy and cultural assimilation in the light of the bicultural nature of sixteenth-century Mexico. The European "contamination" seen by many scholars might actually reflect indigenous ethnocentricity and misinterpretation of European texts, rather than the wholesale acceptance of (...) European culture. (shrink)

This article analyzes the relationship between Van Gogh and two of his doctors, Dr. Rey and Dr. Gachet, whose portraits he painted, by comparing their rapport with the sick painter and vice versa. Van Gogh the patient/artist—presented here as a case study—enables us to examine not only his projections but the counter-projections of his doctors, whether in writing (Dr. Rey) or in painting (Dr. Gachet), and to explore the psychological and ethical tensions these projections give rise to. Van Gogh's portraits (...) of the two doctors offer two contrastive models: estrangement vis-à-vis “doubling” and symbiosis. Whereas Dr. Rey catered for Van Gogh's maternal needs and misunderstood his artistic needs, Dr. Gachet identified with his patient's talent and drew his face (death mask) after his suicide. The central ethical question that arises from the analysis of Van Gogh's relationship with his two doctors is whether we can extend our moral judgments beyond the cultural bounds of a specific historical context. (shrink)

Der Versohnung dient Dialektik. Das Konzept der negativen Dialektik lasst sich als das Vorhaben verstehen, Dialektik durch dialektische Mittel zu uberwinden. Doch wie geht die radikale Kritik gesellschaftlicher Verhaltnisse und traditioneller Denkformen, eine Fundamentalkritik des falschen Ganzen, zusammen mit einem emphatischen Begriff von Utopie, mit der Idee einer Versohnung von Menschheit und Natur? In dieser Frage kommt ein Spannungsverhaltnis zum Ausdruck, das das gesamte Werk Adornos pragt und sich in paradoxalen und aporetischen Gedankenfiguren ausdruckt. Diese Untersuchung rekonstruiert das negativ-utopische Denken (...) Adornos, indem es dessen Leitmotive in ideengeschichtlichen Konstellationen transparent macht. (shrink)

Taking into account the debate about the continuity or discontinuity in Heb 1-12 and Heb 13, with the implication of whether the hortatory material in chapter 13 is consistent with chapters 1-12 or it is a list of miscellaneous exhortations instead, this article seeks to discern connections between the concept of marriage in 13:4 with the ideas stated in 12:28–13:6. This endeavor is informed by a reading of 12:28-13:6 made in three steps. First, 12:28-29 is read as a transition for (...) the hortatory material in chapter 13. Second, 13:1-6 is traced as a conceptual structure for the understanding of marriage in 13:4. Third, the article identifies connections of the exhortation about marriage in 13:4 with ideas developed in 12:28-29 and 13:1-6. (shrink)

Research relating to the definition of man is an activity that has engaged Kant since the beginning of his philosophy and, in this regard, an important contribution can be drawn from the theory of the sublime. The sublime is one of the undisputed protagonists of the _Critique of the power of judgement_, but its role is not limited to the completion of aesthetic theory, as it also stands out for its ability to render an exhaustive portrait of man in Kant's (...) philosophy. (shrink)

Lines 4–5 of Antiphanes fr. 46 KA, an Athenian view of the stereotypical Spartan life, present several difficult, interrelated problems. The text as printed by Kassel- Austin is grammatically intelligible, although problematic, since καταρονέω is used absolutely elsewhere in old or middle comedy only at Amph.

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Reviewed by:Democracy, Culture, Catholicism: Voices from Four Continents eds. by Michael J. Schuck and John Crowley-BuckSteven P. MilliesDemocracy, Culture, Catholicism: Voices from Four Continents Edited by Michael J. Schuck and John Crowley-Buck NEW YORK: FORDHAM UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2016. 350 pp. $105.00 / $35.00Democracy, Culture, Catholicism is the product of a three-year, international project that started from a less specific inspiration. Originally begun at Loyola University Chicago's Joan and Bill (...) Hank Center for the Catholic Intellectual Heritage in 2010 as a broad inquiry into the relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and politics, the project leaders eventually took a different bearing from events as diverse as the Arab Spring, the Occupy Movement, and Pope Benedict XVI's encyclical Caritas in Veritate to focus their project more squarely on democracy. Examining democracy from within the diverse experiences found in Lithuania, Peru, Indonesia, and the United States, the editors [End Page 208] present us with a valuable snapshot of where the Catholic engagement with democracy as a cultural expression finds itself today in a global perspective.Given the amount of material at play, the volume is a monumental achievement, if only for the clarity with which it presents its findings. Some essays are stronger than others. Still, the volume benefits tremendously from an apparent and unusual amount of editorial attention that sequences the essays and interrelates them with useful references to one another in such a way that Democracy, Culture, Catholicism escapes entirely the fate of so many volumes of collected essays. Here, the reader has the sensation of reading one coherent narrative, not twenty-three disparately connected, individual essays. This alone is impressive.The volume possesses other strengths. Reflections emerge throughout that engage the deeper questions of democracy. Who are these people making decisions together? How can we understand the composition of a political community? Too much democratic theory overlooks the complex interweaving of history, memory, and identity that operates like a substrate of our consciousness beneath our reason while we are presuming ourselves to be rational decision makers using democratic procedures. The book's engagement not just with democracy and Catholicism but also with culture is important. These essays treat culture not only in different local expressions but also (and in a way that is deep, serious, and sustained) as a phenomenon of consciousness.The American perspective always lurks in the narrative, threatening to dominate. This is inevitable not only because the project was managed in the United States but also because the polarizing obsessions of the church in the United States about how to acknowledge the norms of modern political arrangements have tended to dominate conversation in the church worldwide. The editors have shrewdly chosen to save the United States for the last part of this volume, allowing other voices to come forward first to claim their own space. This editorial decision, like so many others, improves the volume and keeps the narrative in good balance. Still, some questions linger in this reviewer's mind as the volume concludes.What do we mean by democracy? Throughout, the authors treat this as a question that is largely settled. Democracy is identified with democratic values that the church accepts, and in Schuck's words, what is under way is "a critical conversation with the culture of democracy" (330). Yet procedural democracy cannot be severed from these values. Are democratic norms and values vindicated when majorities choose undemocratic values? A more careful drawing of distinctions between democracy, liberalism, and republicanism would expose the inner conflicts in which Catholicism meets modern political norms.Perhaps most urgently for the subject matter of this book, are the claims of Catholic social teaching and Christian ethics a foundation for the democratic, participatory values of this secular age, as writers like Charles Taylor and David [End Page 209] Walsh have suggested? This also would raise questions about how culturally conditioned we should understand democracy to be, surely an important consideration for this very fine study.Steven P. MilliesCatholic Theological UnionCopyright © 2018 Society of Christian Ethics... (shrink)

Transnational Feminist Itineraries demonstrates the key contributions of transnational feminist theory and practice to analyzing and contesting contemporary political and economic trends, including growing authoritarian nationalism and the extension of global corporate power.

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:preface This special issue of Feminist Studies presents an eclectic view of women ’s friendships from across Western history and from several different cultures. Several of the articles question whether identity or sameness is a prerequisite for friendship and ask what friendships across difference look like, including charting the difficulties of making and sustaining such friendships. The articles in this issue contrast the variety and functions of women’s friendships (...) with the narcissistic masculinist ideals of classical Western thought about friendship in which friends serve as reflections of a person—typically a male and upper-class person. The authors in this issue present women’s friendships that are more pragmatic and more vulnerable and that contend more fully with difference. Some authors reflect on the high expectations placed on friendship within Second Wave feminism in the United States, noting how competition and feelings of betrayal can suffuse friendships; others trace more autonomous, productive, and forgiving contemporary visions of friendship. The issue opens with Susan Van Dyne’s archival study of student friendships in a pioneering US women’s college, revealing how love, flirtation, and desire between women was expressed in Smith College’s class of 1883. In another historical study, sociologist Harriet Bjerrum Nielsen contrasts the narratives of Norwegian girls and young women from the late nineteenth century with those of present-day women and girls, noting differences between rural and urban contexts. Ivy Schweitzer 272Preface surveys classical Western masculinist ideals of friendship from Aristotle to Montaigne and traces the transformation of this tradition into the present quest for equality without hierarchy. Alexandra Verini addresses models of female friendship in the European Middle Ages, arguing that Christine de Pizan and Margery Kempe illustrate a “viable female alternative ” to classical models. The vulnerability of women’s close relationships comes to the fore in Nancy K. Miller’s moving elegies for deceased feminist friends, while Judith Taylor explores the more open and autonomous friendships adumbrated in contemporary fictions by Zadie Smith and Jillian and Mariko Tamaki, themes also addressed in Judith Kegan Gardiner’s review essay of advice books on friendships between women and other studies of women’s friendships. Richa Nagar’s interview articulates an ideal of feminist friendships that “enable continuous evolution of our beings and mindsets... without feeling threatened by one another.” If our articles focus on the close bonds between women, our News and Views pieces in this issue point to collective ties formed in response to political and social threats: Dalia Abd El-Hameed and Nadine Naber describe responses by Egyptian feminists to government crackdowns, and our forum “Orlando: Observances” offers a selection of first-person accounts from vigils organized to mark the massacre at the Pulse nightclub this summer. This issue also presents internal negotiations of identity, identification, and body image in Stephanie Han’s short story and in the vivid and bold transgressions of Wangechi Mutu’s collages as described by Sarah Jane Cervenak. In “‘Abracadabra’: Intimate Inventions by Early College Women,” Susan Van Dyne takes us on a fascinating journey into the “the early formation of a homosocial student culture and the bonds between women” at Smith College in the late nineteenth century. Mining an archive of diaries, letters, photos, and other materials from a group of friends from the class of 1883, she focuses on two kinds of written evidence: one, the inchoate expressions of homoerotic desire in one student’s journal at a moment when “lesbian” did not yet exist as an identity, and the other, a love poem to two students, written as a parody by one of their women professors, but which reverberated beyond the college and ignited male opprobrium. In her discussions of these developments, rather than ascribing identity, Van Dyne navigates the “messiness” of the archive, keeping her eye trained on the “only partially intelligible strategies of self-representation that can’t be translated or reduced to the modern Preface 273 language of sexual self-recognition.” What is most surprising in her account is not that young women would feel desire for one another, nor that male peers or authorities might find this threatening, but that the fabric of the students’ homosocial community had such resilience, nurturing... (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:preface In this issue, one cluster of articles presents scholarly and creative work focused on Latin American queer politics. Each article reveals queer challenges—theoretical, aesthetic, political, ideological, libidinal, corporeal—to prevailing logics of heteronormativity and neoliberalism, and to asymmetrical processes of knowledge production and circulation. Rafael de la Dehesa examines how political responses to AIDS in Brazil enabled surprising alliances between NGOs, activists, and the state, which produced radical social (...) change and, at times, engendered exclusion and vulnerability. Christine Keating and Amy Lind’s essay explores indigenous and transfeminist efforts to transform the Ecuadorian constitution, producing new conceptions of both state and family. Constanza Tabbush and Melina Gaona trace the rise and fall of a neighborhood organization in Argentina called Tupac Amaru, which provided a space of encounter for lesbian, non-gender normative, and marginalized women. In a review of recent work on Latin American sexualities, Juan Camilo Galeano Sánchez finds LGBT people across Latin America and the diaspora deploying “queer revolutionary gestures” as a form of resistance to social, political, and economic marginalization. María Amelia Viteri’s commentary examines the intellectual trajectories of a network of queer scholars from across the Americas. The art essay by Tara Daly engages Iquitos artist Christian Bendayán’s visual efforts to queer prevailing conceptions of the Amazon, and tatiana de la tierra’s* poems offer a deep celebration of female eroticism. * We have spelled tatiana de la tierra’s name in lower case in accordance with the wishes of her literary executors. 256Preface Another cluster of essays highlights reproductive rights and race in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. Gabriela Arguedas Ramírez and Lynn M. Morgan study the tactics that right-wing, US-based organizations deploy against sexual and reproductive rights in Mexico and Central America. Jennifer L. Shoaff examines the Dominican cultural construction of the Haitian mother as “beggar-mother,” which shores up ideas of pathological black maternity. Ana-Maurine Lara’s article considers the gendered and sexual logics of anti-blackness, and anti-Haitianism, in the Dominican Republic. The provocation for our cluster on representations of queer identities and politics in Latin America came, broadly, from developments in Latin America in recent decades: the wave of LGBT organizing around issues from same-sex marriage to transgender rights, alongside the continued, if not escalated, violence against trans, travestis, and other queer people in countries throughout the region. More immediately, it came from a symposium on Latin American/Latin@ queer and sexuality studies, cosponsored by the Center for Latin American, Caribbean, and Latino Studies (CLACLS) and the Women, Gender, Sexuality Studies Department at the University of Massachusetts (UMass), Amherst, in March 2013. Several of the papers published here were initially presented at that event and have been complemented and extended by other analytical essays and creative material on similar questions. Based on their familiarity with the debates, Sonia Alvarez, UMass CLACLS Director and professor of political science, and Amy Lind, head of the Department of Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies at the University of Cincinnati, offered invaluable input for this issue, and we thank them for their intellectual generosity and collaborative spirit. Three of the articles in the cluster take us inside the complex relations between queer movements and neoliberal institutions, illustrating the distinctive ways these dynamics play out in different national contexts and political configurations. In “NGOs, Governmentality, and the Brazilian Response to AIDS: A Multistranded Genealogy of the Current Crisis,” Rafael de la Dehesa argues that the AIDS crisis served as a “doorway to the state” for marginalized actors, such as sex workers and LGBT activists. These groups pushed for and won a national AIDS program that dramatically reduced rates of mortality and new infections in Brazil in the 1990s through universal access to treatment and a nonstigmatizing approach to prevention. Its success was based, in part, on World Bank Preface 257 loans and, in part, on a participatory model of public-private partnerships characteristic of neoliberal government. De la Dehesa argues that, “Far from encapsulating activism in a seamless web of biopolitical management... nodes of articulation between officials and activists became sites of conflict and productive tension.” However, while the alliances between NGOs... (shrink)

Efforts to promote gender equality often encourage changes to interpersonal interactions as a way of undermining gender hierarchy. Such programs are premised on the idea that the gender system can be “undone” when individuals behave in ways that challenge prevailing gender norms. However, scholars know little about whether and under what conditions real changes to the gender system can result from changed behaviors. We use the context of a gender sensitization program in the Democratic Republic of Congo to examine prospects (...) for transformative change at the interactional level of the gender system. Over nine months, we observed significant changes in men’s quotidian practices. Further, we identified a new commitment among many men to a more equal division of household labor. However, participants consistently undermined the transformative potential of these behavioral changes through their dedication to maintaining control over the objective, process, and meaning of change, resisting conceptions of equality that challenged the gender system. Because quotidian changes left gender hierarchy intact, they appear unlikely to destabilize the logics that legitimate women’s subordination. (shrink)

In this follow-up to the highly successful _Ethnography Unbound,_ Michael Burawoy and nine colleagues break the bounds of conventional sociology, to explore the mutual shaping of local struggles and global forces. In contrast to the lofty debates between radical theorists, these nine studies excavate the dynamics and histories of globalization by extending out from the concrete, everyday world. The authors were participant observers in diverse struggles over extending citizenship, medicalizing breast cancer, dumping toxic waste, privatizing nursing homes, the degradation of (...) work, the withdrawal of welfare rights, and the elaboration of body politics. From their insider vantage points, they show how groups negotiate, circumvent, challenge, and even re-create the complex global web that entangles them. Traversing continents and extending over three years, this collaborative research developed its own distinctive method of "grounded globalization" to grasp the evaporation of traditional workplaces, the dissolution of enclaved communities, and the fluidity of identities. Forged between the local and global, these compelling essays make a powerful case for ethnography's insight into global dynamics. (shrink)

In December 2004, at the age of 91, my father was told that his congestive heart failure had worsened and that his kidneys were functioning poorly. At best, the prognosis was that he had perhaps another year; at 86, my father had had a succession of three heart attacks before having surgery to place a stent in his coronary artery. The cardiologist who treated him then said he would get five or six good years from the stent, for which my (...) father was grateful. Now, he believed that his time had come, and he wanted to see his grandchildren one last time.My family and I quickly made arrangements to travel 1,200 miles to make this last visit. We arrived late in the evening, and my mother answered the doorbell with the... (shrink)

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é sintetizar os principais elementos do confronto entre o pensamento do teólogo reformado Karl Barth e o do filósofo alemão Ludwig Feuerbach com relação aos temas da religião, teologia e antropologia, que na abordagem de ambos apresentam conexão direta. Para tanto, este estudo inicia-se com uma panorâmica apresentação feuerbachiana da interpretação antropológica da teologia e religião, particularmente a partir de sua obra mais famosa “A Essência do Cristianismo”, que conduz às suas conclusões de ataque à (...) teologia e re-significação da função da religião. A seguir, a reação de Barth às idéias de Feuerbach são contempladas, a partir de sua visão teológica teocêntrica. Nesse sentido, há a exposição de duas fases da reação barthiana ao pensamento de Feuerbach. Na primeira delas Barth apresenta certos elementos de concordância e aproveitamento das noções feuerbachinas, ao passo que na segunda fase a discordância é total. Em suas conclusões o artigo aponta que o debate entre Barth e Feuerbach gira em torno da idéia de reducionismo teológico ou religioso, tão presente nos debates epistemológicos dos estudos em Ciências da Religião. Palavras-chave : Barth; Feuerbach; teologia; religião; antropologia.This article aims to summarize the main elements of the confrontation between the reformed theologian Karl Barth’s conception and the German philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach’s thought concerning religion, theology and anthropology, which maintain straight connection in both approaches. For so much, this study begins with a feuerbachian panoramic presentation of the anthropological interpretation of theology and religion, particularly from his most famous work “The Essence of the Christianity”, which leads to his conclusions of attack upon theology and a re-signification of the function of religion. Thereafter, Barth’s reaction to Feuerbach’s ideas is discussed from his theocentric theological perspective. In this sense, there is an exposure of two phases of barthian reaction to Feuerbach. Firstly Barth presents topics of agreement with feuerbachian notions, while in the second phase the disagreement is total. Among the article’s conclusions there is an indication that the Barth-Feuerbach debate deals with religious or theological reductionism, usually present in epistemological discussions on Religious Studies. Key words : Barth; Feuerbach; theology; religion; anthropology. (shrink)

Medication error is the most common and consistent type of error occurring in hospitals. This article attempts to explore the ethical issues relating to the nursing management of medication errors in clinical areas in Macau, China. A qualitative approach was adopted. Seven registered nurses who were involved in medication errors were recruited for in-depth interviews. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using content analysis. Regarding the management of patients, the nurses acknowledged the mistakes but did not disclose the incidents to (...) patients and relatives. Concerning management of the nurses involved by senior staff, most participants experienced fairness, comfort and understanding during the process of reporting and investigation. The ethical issues relating to the incidents were discussed, particularly in the Chinese context. There is a need for further study relating to the disclosure of medication incidents to patients and some suggestions were made. (shrink)

XIX. Yüzyılın sonları ve XX. yüzyılın başlarında Azerbaycan'da entelijansiya arasında milli bilinç ortaya çıkmış olsa da Sovyet dönemiyle birlikte bu süreç kesintiye uğramış ve toplumsal tabana yayılamamıştır. Sonuç olarak, var olan “Müslüman Kimliği”, Azeri toplumu için temel bir kimlik bağı olarak varlığını sürdürmeye devam etmiştir. Entelijansiyanın tasfiyesi ile birlikte, kullandıkları sloganlar ve milliyetçi semboller de ortadan kalkmış, Türk milliyetçiliği Azerbaycan'da bir ideoloji olarak varlığını koruyamamıştır. Sonuç itibariyle, politik-ideolojik milliyetçilik ve onun sloganları, milli bilinci canlı tutma imkanından yoksun bırakılmıştır. Bu makalede, (...) Sovyet Azerbaycan'ında milli bilinci besleyen temel faktörün İslâm ve Müslüman kimliği olduğu savunulmaktadır. Komünist rejim İslam’ın entelektüel ve ideolojik boyutlarını en aza indirmeyi başarmasına rağmen, kültürel norm ve yaşam tarzı haline gelen unsurlarını aşındırma konusunda başarısız kalmaktaydı. Sovyet Azerbacan’ında Müslüman olmak Azeri toplumunun bir üyesi olmak ve söz konusu toplumun yaşam tarzına bağlılık olarak algılanmaktaydı. Nitekim, Azerbaycan'da “Müslüman” tanımının göndermede bulunduğu yaşam tarzı Azeri toplumunu çevredeki -Ruslar, Ermeniler ve Gürcüler- toplumlardan ayıran temel faktör olmuştur. Bu anlamda, ortak yaşam tarzına ve kültürel normlara atıfta bulunan İslam, Sovyet döneminde Azeri toplumunun özdeşlik duygusunu pekiştirerek milli bilinci canlı tutmuştur.ÖzetBu çalışma Sovyet döneminde Azerbaycan’da İslam kimliğinin ve İslamî yaşam tarzının milli bilincin sürüdürülmesindeki rolü üzerine yoğunlaşmaktadır. Çalışmanın temel iddiası milli bilincin varlığını sürdürmesinde Müslüman kimliğinin ve İslami yaşam tarzının etkili olduğudur. Bu iddianın doğruluğunun kanıtlanması için belli tarihsel dönemde gerçekleşen, siyasi, toplumsal, demografik ve kültürel konularla ilgili analizler yapılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda XIX. yüzyılın ikinci çeyreğinden itibaren Rusya’nın işgali, milletleşme süreci ve arkasından yaşanan sovyetleştirme süreci Müslüman kimliği ve İslamî yaşam tarzi bağlamında ele alınmaktadır. Söz konusu dönem istatistiki kaynaklar, istihbarat raporları, propaganda kitapları, ve dönem üzerine yapılan akademik araştırmalar ışığında ele alınmış ve üzerine yorumlar yapılmıştır. XIX. Yüzyıla kadar siyasi ve kültürel açıdan İran’ın etkisi altında bulunan şimdiki Azerbaycan bölgesi Rusya İmparatorluğu tarafından işgal edilince bölge halkı ilk kez Hıristiyan yöneticilerin yönetimi altına girmiş oldu. Bölgedeki dayanaklarını güçlendirmek için Çar yönetiminin bölgeye yoğun bir şekilde Ermeni ve Rus nüfusu göç ettirmesi sonrasında ise Azerbaycan’daki Müslüman halk kendini ilk kez Hıristiyan topluluklarla çevrelenmiş olarak buldu. Hep kendisi gibi Müslüman olan toplumun bir parçası olan Azerbaycan toplumu Ruslardan, Ermenilerden ve Gürcülerden oluşan Hıristiyan toplulukların ortasında kendi kimliğini yeniden tanımlamak durumunda kaldı. Çar yönetiminin Azerbaycan’a göç ettirilen Ermeni ve Ruslar’a hem yasal olarak hem de uygulamalarda bir dizi ayrıcalıklar tanıması Azerbaycan Türklerinin kendilerini toplumsal, kültürel, ekonomik ve siyasi açıdan Hıristiyan baskısı altında hiss etmelerine neden olmuştur. Söz konusu baskı ve kayırmanın 1905 ve 1918 yıllarında Azerbaycan Türkleri ile Ermeniler arasında patlak veren çatışmalarda daha yoğun bir şekilde hiss edildiği görülmektedir. Yaşadığı tecrübeler Azerbaycan Türklerini dışlanma nedeni olan kimliklerini, yani Müslüman kimliğini, çevresinde bulunan gayri-muslim topluluklara karşı sahiplenmelerini sağlamıştır. XX. Yüzyılın başında toplumsal gelişimi sağlamak üzere halkın milli bilincini geliştirmeye yönelik faaliyetlerde bulunan, aynı zamanda Müslüman kimliğini de sahiplenen entelejensiya ve burjuvazi kesimi oluşmuştu. Bu süreç 1918 senesinde Azerbaycan’da, türkleşmeyi, çağdaşlaşmayı ve İslamlaşmayı simgeleyen mavi, kırmızı ve yeşil renkleri biraraya getiren bayrağı bulunan Cumhuriyetin kurulması ile sonuçlandı. Fakat cumhuriyet varlığını sadece 23 ay sürdürebildi ve 1920 yılında gerçekleşen sovyet işgali ile birlikte Azerbaycan’da milliyetçi ideoloji, onun idelogları ve sembolleri tamamen tasfiye edilerek yoğun bir şekilde sovyetleştirme politikaları uygulanmaya başladı. Sovyet döneminde milliyetçilik ideolojik düzlemde ortadan kalkmış olsa bile, halkın homojenleşmesini sağlayan, ulus devlete mahsus bir dizi donanımlar sağlandı. Sovyet versiyonunda olsa bile, milli bir devlet aygıtı, milli sınırlar, milli tarih, milli eğitim sistemi oluşturuldu. Neticede aynı dili, aynı tarih bilincini, aynı sınırları paylaşan fakat milli bir ideolojiden yoksun olan bir millet meydana geldi. İdeolojik milliyetçiliğin tehlikeli bir girişim (perilous venture) olduğu Sovyet Azerbaycanı’nda kültüre ve yaşam tarzına dayanan kültürel bir milliyetçilik gelişti. Kültürel milliyetçilik halkın dilini, tarihini ama özellikle de yaşam tarzını savunan bir tutum olarak Sovyet Azerbaycan’ında gelişme gösterdi. Bütün bunlar, yani kültürel özellikler ve yaşam tarzı Azerbaycan toplumunu kendini çevre toplumlarından –Ruslardan, Ermenilerden ve Gürcülerden– ayırdığı başlıca niteliklerdi. Bu bağlamda Sovyet Azerbaycan’ında milliyetçi ve vatansever olmak Azerbaycan toplumunun kültürüne ve yaşam tarzına sahip çıkmak anlamına gelmekteydi. Dolayısıyla kültürel milliyetçilik çevredeki halklarla etnik sınırları sürdürme ve milli bilinci canlı tutma açısından önemli bir role sahipti. Burada araştırma konumuz açısından üzerinde durulması gereken nokta Azerbaycan toplumunda yaşam tarzının ve kültürün önemli bir kısmının İslam ve İslamî gelenek görenekle yakından ilişkili olduğudur. Sovyetleştirme politikaları İslam’ın entelektüel ve ideolojik boyutunu ortadan kaldırma konusunda büyük ölçüde başarılı olduysa da İslam’ın kültürel normları ve yaşam tarzı haline gelen öğeleri kendi varlığını güçlü bir şekilde sürdürmekteydi. Sovyet rejiminin başarısız olduğu nokta, yönettikleri Müslüman toplumlara alternatif bir kültür ve yaşam tarsi sunamamaları idi. Sovyet döneminde İslam’ın cami, başörtüsü vb. somut sembolleri yok edilse de kişiler arası ilişkilerde, sosyal yapıda ve aile ilişkilerinde tezahür eden öğeleri varlığını sürdürmeye devam etmekteydi. Bütün bunlar Azerbaycan toplumunun kendini çevresindeki etnik kimliklerden Ruslardan, Ermenilerden ve Gürcülerden ayırt ettiği, dolayısıyla da milli kimliğinin sınırlarını muhafaza ettiği önemli kültür öğeleri idi. Kebinolarak bilinen dinî nikah, sünnet, cenaze ve yas merasimleri gibi yaşam döngüsü ritüelleri Azeri olmanın çok önemli göstergeleri olarak algılanmıştır. Sovyet ateist ideologlarının yaptıkları birçok araştırmalarda ve istihbarat raporlarında komunist partisi yöneticileri de dahıl olmak üzere halkın söz konusu yaşam döngüsü ritüellerini milli gelenek görenek olduğu gerekçesiyle sürdürdükleri belirtilmekteydi. Ateistler bile, bahsedilen yaşam döngüsü ritüellerine uymadıkları taktirde milli geleneklere karşı gelmekle suçlanacakları ve toplumdan dışlanacakları endişesiyle ritüelleri yerine getirmekteydiler. Kebinsadece Müslüman çiftler arasında kıyıldığından ve dini nikahsız yapılan evlilikler toplumda hoş karşılanmadığından Ruslar, Ermeniler ve Gürcülerle evlilik yapma oranları oldukça düşük kalmaktaydı. Erkek çocuğa sünnet yaptırmak o çocuğu Azeri toplumunun bir üyesi yapmak olarak algılandığından çocuğa sünnet yaptırmak onu diğer toplumların üyelerinden ayıran bir özelliğe kavuşturmak anlamına gelmekteydi. Ölen bir kişinin İslamî üsullere göre gömülmesi o cenazenin bir Rusa, Ermeniye veya Gürcüye değil, bir Azeriye ait olduğunun göstergesi olmaktaydı. Dolayısıyla İslamî kültürden kaynaklanan yaşam döngüsü ritüelleri aynı zamanda çevredeki etnik gruplarla sınırları belirlemekte, dolayısıyla milli ve etnik bilinci canlı tutmaktaydı. Böylece İslamî kültür ve yaşam tarzi Sovyet rejiminin milli ve etnik kimliklerin ötesinde yeni bir insan ve toplum tipi oluşturmayı amaçlayan Homo Sovieticus projesinin de en önemli panzehirlerinden biri olmuştur. (shrink)