The present study examined British children’s and adolescents’ individual and perceived group evaluations of a challenger when a member of one’s own group excludes a British national or an immigrant newcomer to the school from participating in a group activity. Participants included British children and adolescents, who were inducted into their group and heard hypothetical scenarios in which a member of their own group expressed a desire to exclude the newcomer from joining their activity. Subsequently, participants heard that another member (...) of the ingroup challenged the exclusionary act by stating that they should be inclusive. Children’s and adolescents’ individual evaluations of the bystander who challenged the social exclusion of an immigrant peer were more positive than their perceived group evaluations, recognizing that groups are often exclusionary. Only adolescents but not children differed in their individual and perceived group evaluations in the social exclusion of British peers. When the newcomer was an immigrant peer, adolescents were more likely to evaluate the challenger positively in both their individual and perceived group evaluations compared to children. Further, children, compared to adolescents, were more likely to reason about social and group norms to justify their evaluations only when the excluded peer was an immigrant but not when the excluded peer was British. Adolescents were more likely to reason about fairness, rights, and equality. The findings indicate that exclusionary group norms surrounding immigrants begin in childhood. Interventions that focus on changing group norms to be more inclusive could be effective in reducing prejudicial attitudes toward immigrants in childhood. (shrink)

The current study examined how ingroup and outgroup Theory of Mind predicts children’s and adolescents’ reasoning for their acceptability judgments of intergroup bullying of Syrian refugee peers and group support of intergroup bullying. Participants included 587 Turkish middle and high school students. Participants read a bias-based bullying story with a Syrian refugee peer targeted by an ingroup Turkish peer. Then, participants rated the acceptability of bullying and group support of bullying and were presented with a reasoning question after each acceptability (...) question. Reasoning codes included Fairness, Refugee Status/War, Prejudice and Discrimination, Harm, Prescriptive Norms, Group Functioning, and Relationship with the Bully. Participants’ ingroup and outgroup ToM abilities were evaluated as predictors of reasoning. Results documented that middle school students were more likely to attribute mental states to their ingroup members compared to outgroup members while high school students’ ToM performance did not differ across contexts. Further, the more unacceptable participants judged bullying to be, the more they reasoned about the bullying by referencing fairness, refugee status, discrimination, and harm. Results also documented that ingroup and outgroup ToM were positively related to attribution to fairness and participants’ usage of multiple reasoning judgments while only outgroup ToM was a significant predictor of reasoning around refugee status/war, discrimination, and prejudice. The findings provide implications for intervention programs that tackle intergroup bullying by examining bystanders’ social cognitive skills in a specific context. (shrink)

Technological developments and changes in communication systems in postmodern world have enhanced the organizations to improve their own communication infrastructures and to effectively use their internet sites. Like all other organizations, sport club institutions have considered the vital importance of investing in social media activities and creating their corporate reputation through their connections with their supporters. Thus, social media channels and public relations via social media have been the most essential tools of the organizations to build company image and increase (...) their corporate reputation among the stakeholder groups, particularly their supporters. Taking into account the suggested influence of effective use of social media on building corporate reputation, the current study examined the relationship between supporters’ social media usage frequency and their perceptions of corporate reputation. A cross-sectional research design has been applied in order to obtain data about the corporate reputation perception levels and social media usage frequencies of the supporters as well as the demographic characteristics of the participants. The sample group was composed of 782 participants and data obtained was examined by executing statistical analyses. The findings revealed that individuals’ social media usage frequency has positive effect on the perceived corporate reputation. In addition, demographic differences were observed in terms of the social media usage frequency and corporate reputation perception. Consequently, the results of the study were discussed in the light of the conceptual background and the previous empirical evidences. The managerial and conceptual implications of the study were evaluated and future directions were presented. (shrink)

Research has documented that individuals consider outcomes, intentions, and transgressor negligence when making morally relevant judgments (Nobes, Panagiotaki, & Engelhardt, 2017). However, less is known about whether individuals attend to both victim and transgressor negligence in their evaluations. The current study measured 3‐ to 6‐year‐olds (N = 70), 7‐ to 12‐year‐olds (N = 54), and adults' (N = 97, ages 18–25 years) moral judgments about scenarios in which an accidental transgression occurred involving property damage or physical harm. Participants were either (...) assigned to conditions where the victim or the transgressor was negligent. Results revealed attention to negligence among all participants across a range of different moral judgment measures (including acceptability judgments, punishment judgments, and attributions of blame), with age‐related increases in attention to negligence evident. Results provide novel evidence that children and adults consider not just outcomes and intentions, but also the role of negligence in both victims and transgressors, when making social decisions. (shrink)

Schools may be one important context where adolescents learn and shape the behaviors necessary for promoting global inclusivity in adulthood. Given the importance of bystanders in halting bullying and peer aggression, the focus of this study is on both moral judgments regarding one type of bullying, social exclusion, and factors that are associated with bystander intervention. The study includes 896 adolescents, who were 6th, and 9th graders, approximately evenly divided by gender. Participants were primarily European–American. Results revealed that girls and (...) participants who perceived better relationships between students and teachers were more likely to judge exclusion to be wrong. Further, ethnic minority participants, those who were more anxious about being rejected by their teachers and reported more teacher discrimination were less likely to judge exclusion as wrong. Participants who reported more positive student–teacher relationships, perceptions of a more positive school social environment and more prior experiences of teacher discrimination were more likely to report that they would seek help for the victim. On the other hand, participants who reported being more angry about teacher rejection, experiencing either peer or teacher discrimination, and perceiving they are excluded from opportunities at school were less likely to intervene to come to the aid of a peer who is being excluded. The results document the complex interplay of school and teacher factors in shaping adolescents’ bystander responses to social exclusion. Our findings suggest that positive school climate can promote intentions to intervene. However, findings indicate that adolescents who are marginalized in their school environments, and who report experiences of rejection, exclusion or discrimination are not willing or likely to intervene to prevent others from experiencing exclusion. (shrink)

This article aims to present polemical exchanges over capital punishment that were conducted in interwar Poland. By using the analytical method and the source texts found in the press and the minutes of the Codification Committee, the author wants to trace the evolution of views on the death penalty and its usefulness in the state policy. The opinions on the subject differed considerably which was common not only for the interwar period. Back in the 19th century, when the first statements (...) on capital punishment had been published in newspapers, they had ended with completely different conclusions. Advocates for the abolition of the death penalty had emphasized first of all its ineffectiveness as well as the doubts of a religious and moral nature, which had led to a conclusion that the state could not take away a person’s life. Whereas supporters of the death penalty had believed that, in view of the low level of civilisation development of individual communities, giving up the possibility to impose the death sentence could have contributed to an uncontrolled rise in crime rates. They had also emphasized that public opinion demanded the retaining of capital punishment and acting against it would have resulted in various manifestations of public unrest. The death penalty had not been abolished in Poland during the interwar period but the exchange of arguments during those years had laid the foundations for the future changes in that area. They occurred at the end of the 20th century. (shrink)

Miejscem pobytu cesarza Rudolfa II na przełomie XVI i XVII w. była Praga, która stała się również centrum międzynarodowej dyplomacji oraz siedzibą dyplomatów z różnych mocarstw. Należeli do nich także stali nuncjusze apostolscy, którzy na dworze cesarskim reprezentowali papieża będącego głową Kościoła katolickiego, jak również władcą suwerennego Państwa Kościelnego. W trakcie ich wieloletniej i ciągłej pracy w stolicy Królestwa Czeskiego musieli pogodzić się z faktem, że ich rezydencja znajduje się w wyraźnie niekatolickim mieście, gdzie nawet jedna z konfesji korzystała z (...) pełnej ochrony prawnej państwa. Praca oparta na korespondencji nuncjuszy oraz kolejnych powiązanych z tym źródłach w kontekście rozwoju ziem czeskich analizuje sposób, w jaki dyplomaci apostolscy podchodzili do swego bezpośredniego otoczenia z punktu widzenia różnic konfesyjnych. Pierwszoplanowo jednak bada, czy istniały dla nich jakiekolwiek akceptowalne odmiany podejścia do innowierców, czy i w jakim stopniu można było utrzymywać z nimi relacje oraz w których dziedzinach działalności dyplomatycznej dla nuncjuszy przekraczanie granicy konfesyjnej zasadniczo nie było możliwe. Z przeprowadzonego badania wynika zatem, że z jednej strony nie było realnie możliwe całkowite wyeliminowanie kontaktów z niekatolikami, a w niektórych przypadkach negocjacje z nimi uznano nawet za konieczne, ważne lub przynajmniej dopuszczalne. Z drugiej strony byliśmy świadkami prób jasnego zdefiniowania i oddzielenia się od różnych nurtów wyznaniowych i ich wyznawców, zwłaszcza jeśli otaczające społeczeństwo mogło ewentualnie interpretować kontakty w niewłaściwy sposób, podważając tym samym wiarygodność stanowiska nuncjusza papieskiego jako przedstawiciela dyplomatycznego papieża. (shrink)

W artykule rozważam opinię mówiącą o rezygnacji z terminu „uporczywa terapia” i o potrzebie zastąpienia go terminem „terapia medycznie daremna”. Ponadto zastanawiam się nad przydatnością podziału środków medycznych na zwyczajne i nadzwyczajne. Opowiadam się przeciwko odrzuceniu terminu „uporczywa terapia”, jak również staram się pokazać, że klasyfikacja środków medycznych, która łączy pary pojęć „proporcjonalne/nieproporcjonalne” i „zwyczajne/nadzwyczajne”, może stanowić skuteczną pomoc w podejmowaniu decyzji o rezygnacji z uporczywej terapii zarówno dla lekarza, jak i dla pacjenta. Przedmiotem refleksji czynię wypracowaną przez Polską Grupę (...) Roboczą ds. Etyki Końca Życia definicję uporczywej terapii oraz jej zmodyfikowaną wersję. Zasadniczym kontekstem prowadzonych analiz są opinie niektórych autorów biorących udział w debatach zorganizowanych przez Polskie Towarzystwo Bioetyczne na temat uporczywej terapii oraz terapii medycznie daremnej. (shrink)

Autor rozpatruje - w kontekście dyskusji na temat eutanazji - argumenty przemawiające za stosowaniem silnych środków pozwalających uśmierzać ból i cierpienie w fazie terminalnej, jak też przemawiające przeciwko takiemu postępowaniu. W efekcie zestawienia ze sobą jednych i drugich argumentów dojść można do wniosku, że stosowanie środków uśmierzających jest zachowaniem o wiele bardziej wskazanym, aniżeli wspomaganie przy samobójstwie. Nie należy z tego jednak wyprowadzać wniosku, że jest to jedyna moralnie akceptowana opcja. Wniosek, do jakiego dochodzi autor, brzmi mniej więcej następująco: oba (...) sposoby postępowania są moralnie akceptowalne, atoli jeden z nich jest bardziej wskazany czy korzystny. Poza tym trzeba jeszcze wspomnieć o jednym: podczas gdy można wskazać racje przemawiające przeciwko temu, by obowiązkiem lekarza uczynić asystowanie przy samobójczym akcie cierpiącego pacjenta, to tak samo można wskazać racje przemawiające za tym, by zobowiązać lekarza do tego by w tych samych okolicznościach - przy założeniu, że jest to jedyny sposób uśmierzenia bólu - uczynić obowiązkiem lekarza to, by w danych okolicznościach podał pacjentowi silne środki uśmierzające ból. Autor skłonny jest nawet pójść dalej i przyznać pacjentowi prawo żądania w określonych okolicznościach podania środków uśmierzających ból w stanach terminalnych. Jedną z racji przemawiających za tym jest, według autora, żywotne zainteresowanie pacjenta tym, by w ostatnich chwilach swego życia być uwolnionym od cierpienia. (shrink)

Raport wydany został przez Stowarzyszenie "Miasta w Internecie". Jego celem jest opracowanie modelu i katalogu funkcjonalnych kompetencji cyfrowych. Przedstawia on analizȩ badań i literatury przedmiotu, taksonomie kompetencji cyfrowych oraz projekt pomiaru funkcjonalnych kompetencji cyfrowych. Raport powstał w ramach „Projektu systemowego - działania na rzecz rozwoju szerokopasmowego Internetu ", realizowanego przez Ministerstwo Administracji i Cyfryzacji oraz Stowarzyszenie „Miasta w Internecie" pod hasłem POLSKA CYFROWA RÓWNYCH SZANS.

This paper examines the type of devotion of the early modern soldiers which was referred to as “the fearing of God”. The phenomenon started in the 1560s and continued for two centuries in the Polish and Lithuanian Duchy armies. It was based on the belief in the direct intervention of God during military action, which depended on the conduct of the soldiers. The commanders-in-chief promoted the vision of reality in which crimes were equated with sins and affected the outcome of (...) wars and battles, and even determined the safety of the soldiers themselves. The acts that were displeasing to God were to result in severe punishment during battles, while piety and good behavior guaranteed success. The analysis of this issue was conducted on the basis of normative acts issued by the commanders-in-chief, called military articles, which were supplemented by the analysis of military treaties. The paper emphasizes that this concept was promoted by all commanders regardless of denomination, including Polish Brethren, Lutherans, Reformed Evangelicals and Catholics. It was placed, as a rule, at the beginning of the military articles as an arenga, providing the basis for the validity of the criminal laws. The combination of the “fear of God” and the military law was shown to have rational justification: it guaranteed a higher discipline and morale, which could be reflected in the effectiveness of the warfare conducted. The application of this idea led to the breakdown of soldier solidarity and to the belief that the misconduct of individuals affected the fate of troops and entire armies. The most important creators of this concept include Florian Zebrzydowski, Jan Chodkiewicz and Stanisław Cikowski, and at the turn of the centuries it was developed by Jan Zamoyski and Krzysztof Radziwiłł, nicknamed Piorun. The most elaborate formula in the military articles was presented in the 17th century by Krzysztof Radziwiłł II, and a century later by Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł. A hypothesis was also formulated that an old concept, which survived as one of the elements of Old Polish culture, was adopted to evaluate the Battle of Warsaw of 1920, which has been referred to as the Miracle on the Vistula, what was supposed to symbolize the causal role of God during the war. (shrink)

Evaluating demographical changes in Poland and Europe at the turn of 20th century, researchers more often use the expression „family crisis”. The increase in the number of divorces and in the number of extra-marital births, prevalence of pre-marital cohabitation, as well as its increased acceptance in the society and the increase in the scope of voluntary childlessness make up such an approach to the situation. This article presents and discusses the results of a survey concerning ethical matters of family life (...) conducted in April 2010 amongst students of Lodz’s colleges. The responses were contrasted with the declared influence of Pope John Paul’s II pontificate. A vast majority of students claim to decide upon religious wedding while entering into marriage. They also declare bringing up their potential off springs in catholic tradition. The students of Lodz are also critical of abortion. It needs to be highlighted that in almost all aspects of family life people, who declared a positive influence of the teaching and life of the Polish Pope on their behaviour, more often than others supported the teaching of Roman Catholic Church. On the basis of the conducted survey it may be noticed that the students of Lodz remember about the Polish Pope and his teaching, however, do not support all of his views as far as family life is concerned. Also the majority of the students would say they belong to „the generation of JPII”. (shrink)

Wilhelm Roux (1850–1924) was the follower of mechanical philosophy in biological recognition. His research strategy focusing exclusively on the physical and chemical rights should be considered as strictly scientific. Reductionist perspective of organisms by Roux as closed complexes and physiological activities occuring in their range are in the completely new light of modern biology where the experimental method was introduced. In spite of the faulty methodological assumptions and the failed experimental attempt, the research attempt of Roux was the inspiration for (...) vitalist Hans Driesch. (shrink)

Vacuum Genesis and Spontaneous Emergence of the Universe from Nothing in Reference to the Classical Notion of Causality and Creation ex nihilo The article discousses philosophical and theological reflections inspired by the cosmological model of the origin of the universe from quantum vacuum through quantum tunneling and the model presented by Hartle and Hawking. In the context of the thesis about the possibility of cosmogenesis ex nihilo without the need of God the creator, the question is being raised concerning the (...) ontological status of nothingness and of the laws of nature in the aforementioned models. After pointing to the fact that they do not imply an absolute nothingness in the philosophical sense, the main objectives of both models and philosophical-theological conclusions they inspire are interpreted in the light of the classical principles of potency and act, theory of causation and chance events in nature, elements of classical theology of creation and the classification of sciences in terms of various levels of abstraction, proposed by Aquinas. Noting the fact that some cosmologists cross methodological boundaries of their science, we emphasize the role and significance of their research in a deeper understanding of the philosophical aspects of the origins of the universe, especially the role of potency in the first stages of its existence and evolution. (shrink)

“Il n’y a pas de hors-texte”. Intralinguistic Semantics and Its Philosophical and Cognitive Consequences The aim of this paper is to present and metatheoretically analyse the model of intralinguistic semantics as set forth by Umberto Eco in his Theory of Semiotics. The distinctive feature of this system is the rejection of the realistic category of reference, understood as a correspondence of meaningful units with the extralinguistic domain of interpretation, i.e., with a class of extralinguistic semantic correlates. As a result, the (...) main idea of Eco’s theory is to replace the traditional extralinguistic semantics with the new one, in which the meaning of each unit is determined solely by its relations with the other elements of the system. Language formed in this way is semantically autonomous, intralinguistically closed and self-explaining. Analysis of Eco’s theory by means of the appropriate conceptual apparatus reveals the far-reaching philosophical and cognitive implications of his approach in studies on language, meaning and truth. (shrink)