Tianxia--conventionally translated as "all-under-Heaven"--in everyday Chinese parlance simply means "the world." But tianxia is also a geopolitical term found in canonical writings that has a deeper historical and philosophical significance. Although there are many understandings of tianxia in this literature, interpretations within the Chinese process cosmology generally begin with an ecological understanding of intra-national relations that acknowledge the mutuality and interdependence of all economic and political activity. This volume contextualizes the tianxia vision of geopolitical order within (...) a variety of strategies drawn from a broad spectrum of cultures and peoples: Buddhist, Islamic, Indian, African, Confucian, European. The conversation among the contributors is guided by several central questions: Is tianxia the only model of cosmopolitanism? Are there ideas and ideals comparable to tianxia that exist in other cultures? What alternative perspectives of global justice have inspired Western, Indian, Islamic, Buddhist, and African cultural traditions? The fundamental premise here is that in order for a planetary tianxia system to be relevant and significant for the present time and for our vision of the future, it must acknowledge the plurality of moral ideals defining the world's cultures while at the same time seek practical ways to formulate a minimalist morality that can provide the solidarity needed to bring the world's people together. (shrink)

Tianxia and renlei mingyun gongtongti are two Chinese concepts that are of significance for reflecting on ‘China and Global Development.’ Both present a revival of cosmopolitanism in China, while a...

Devant les désordres du monde d’aujourd’hui, il existe au sein du confucianisme chinois un courant qui tente, dans les termes traditionnels du tianxia, « tous sous le ciel », d’esquisser les contours d’un nouvel ordre du monde et d’un horizon soutenable pour l’avenir. En le rapportant aux perspectives marxistes, cet article s’efforce de dégager ses motifs essentiels et de décrypter les termes du débat auquel il donne lieu. Quels enseignements parvient-il à dégager de cette philosophie millénaire? Est-il à comprendre (...) comme une alternative au marxisme? Ou bien serait-il capable de se repenser autour d’une critique de l’impérialisme? L’article interroge en ce sens un auteur contemporain significatif, Zhao Tingyang. (shrink)

The terminology tianxia has both historical evolution and cultural and philosophical connotations. This concept not only denotes a geographical and spatial meaning, but also implies the moral construct of metaphysics. A systematic study of its historical and cultural repercussions can show that the evolution of the meaning "tianxia" not only embodies the cosmological construction, moral belief and self-identity of the Chinese nation, but also manifests the historical processes of modern China evolving from "tianxia" to a modern nation-state. (...) Meanwhile, the deconstruction of the tianxia cosmology has shattered the old Chinese concept of a single united tianxia, or the whole world under one Heaven. Also, "Confucian China" has been increasingly losing its vitality and strong hold on the people, while the concept of nation-state has gained its way into people's consciousness, which has added more diversity and open-mindedness to the concept of tianxia. (shrink)

ABSTRACT There are two views on the nature of Chinese nationalism. The one view treats Chinese nationalism as political nationalism while the other recognises it as cultural nationalism. This paper argues that Chinese nationalism had been deeply shaped by Confucianism, which has two important and influential concepts of nationalism: tianxia天下and yi-xia夷夏. These two concepts reflect the two facets of Confucian nationalism. With the first facet, manifested in the concept of tianxia, Confucianism emphasizes cultural identity and the pursuit of a (...) kind of benevolent politics; the second facet, manifested in the concept of yi-xia, stresses political identity. As in Mencius, the concept of nationalism is based on his theory of human nature and self-cultivation, and the self-identity of a politician is transformable between the two levels of the yi-xia distinction, along with his self-cultivation. Thus, Confucian nationalism is based on self-cultivation, rather than self-identity. (shrink)

유교의 화이지변과 왕도사상을 핵심으로 하는 ‘천하질서’ 담론은 사실상 ‘지배의 정당성’의 문제이기도 하다. 중국 모델이 아직 그 형체를 분명히 드러내지 않은 상황에서 ‘천하질서’가 중국에서 뜨거운 담론이 되고 있는 것은 이것이 사실상 ‘지배의 정당성’이라는 문제와 밀접하게 관련이 있기 때문이다. 그렇다면 여기서 ‘지배의 정당성’을 어떻게 이해해야 하는가. 21세기라는 현시점에서 ‘지배의 정당성’이란 결국 유교의 보편성의 재구성 속에서 분열이 아닌 통합의 제국적 메카니즘을 확보하는 것이다.BR이 글은 ‘대륙신유가’라는 학문집단이 ‘신캉유웨이주의’를 매개로 하여 시도하는 천하질서와 유교적 보편주의의 재구성의 가능성을 타진하고자 하는 기초적 작업이다. 그 초점은 두가지이다. 하나는 현실적인 (...) 문제로, 이들이 캉유웨이가 문제로 삼았던 중국강역의 보전과 ‘문명중국’의 회복이라는 문제에서 그 정당화전략을 설득력 있게 짜고 있는가이다. 동중서(董仲舒)는 천하사상에 의한 ‘지배의 정당성’ 탄생의 사이클을 완성함으로써 유교를 내용으로 하는 제국의 통치원리를 탄생시켰다. 동중서가 유교를 내용으로 하는 제국의 통치원리를 완성한 이후 유교는 종족보다는 보편의 계기로 받아들여졌다. 유교는 이후 종족보다는 국가(제국)에 내속되었다. “중국에서 ‘지배의 정당성’은 지배자의 민족적 출신으로 판단하는 것이 아니고 ‘대일통’을 실현한 왕조야말로 ‘정통’의 중화왕조라고 하는 사고방식은 이 때부터 보편화되었다. 모든 중화왕조가 목숨을 걸고 제국적 구조를 구축하여 중화제국으로 변신하려 노력한 이유도 천하사상 즉 ‘대일통’의 사상의 틀로 자신의 정당성이 확보될 수 있었기 때문이다. 캉유웨이가 100년 전에 고민한 이 문제는 지금의 중국에도 그대로 존재한다. 그러나 이 문제는 주변에 대한 차별관계의 청산, 대등한 협력 관계의 구축이라는 21세기적 발상의 전환 없이는 실현 불가능하다.BR다른 하나는 규범적 문제로, 천하질서와 유교적 보편주의의 재구성이라는 작업을 통해 ‘성찰적 유학’을 보여줄 수 있는가의 여부이다. ‘성찰적 유학’의 두가지 조건은 타자성과 윤리성이다. 이두 조건이 결여된 신유학 논의는 ‘봉건’으로의 자기회귀라는 비난을 받을 수 있으며 이 형태로는 중국의 안과 밖을 설득시킬 수가 없다. 더 나아가 이들의 기획은 또 다른 ‘중국중심주의’를 꽤하려는 것이라는 오해를 피할 수 없다. 중국의 유학이 재보편화하기 위해서는 서양이라는 타향을 표류하고 난 이후 다시 고향에 돌아온 상태에서 이제 다시금 ‘나는 누구인가’, ‘나의 가치는 어디에 있는가’라는 질문을 낯설게 해야 한다. 그랬을 때 자기에 대한 진정한 객관화과정이 시작될 수 있으며 자기상대화를 통한 타자성을 확보할 수 있다. 이 과정을 거쳐야만 ‘성찰적 유학’이라 칭할 수 있으며 ‘지속가능성’을 말할 수 있다. 이를 기준으로 본다면 ‘대륙신유가’의 ‘신캉유웨이주의’를 통한 천하질서와 유교적 보편주의의 재구성의 가능성은 지켜봐야 하겠지만 그렇게 높다고 할 수 없다. 현실적 문제든 규범적 문제든 재구성의 가능성이 높지 않다면 그것은 아마 20세기를 거친 21세기적 인식의 부재에서 비롯된 것일 가능성이 높다. (shrink)

As an idealist form of realism, or realist form of idealism, the system of ‘All-under-Heaven’ seeks to find a rational and optimal solution to the problem of political conflict. Howeve...

In this succinct yet ample work, Zhao Tingyang as one of China's most distinguished and respected intellectuals, provides a profoundly original philosophical interpretation of China's story. Over the past few decades, the question "where did China come from?" has absorbed the thoughts of many of China's best historians. Zhao, keenly aware of the persistent and pernicious asymmetry in the prevailing way scholars have gone about theorizing China according to Western concepts and categories, has tasked both Chinese and Western scholars alike (...) to "rethink China." To this end, Zhao introduces what he terms a distinctively Chinese centripetal "whirlpool" model of world order to interpret the historical progression of China's "All-Under-Heaven" Tianxia identity construction on the central plain of China. In this book, Zhao forwards a novel and compelling thesis on not only how we should understand China, but also until recently, how China has understood itself. (shrink)

The Confucian doctrine of _tianxia_ outlines a unitary worldview that cherishes global justice and transcends social, geographic, and political divides. For contemporary scholars, it has held myriad meanings, from the articulation of a cultural imaginary and political strategy to a moralistic commitment and a cosmological vision. The contributors to _Chinese Visions of World Order_ examine the evolution of tianxia's meaning and practice in the Han dynasty and its mutations in modern times. They attend to its varied interpretations, its relation (...) to realpolitik, and its revival in twenty-first-century China. They also investigate tianxia's birth in antiquity and its role in empire building, invoke its cultural universalism as a new global imagination for the contemporary world, analyze its resonance and affinity with cosmopolitanism in East-West cultural relations, discover its persistence in China's socialist internationalism and third world agenda, and critique its deployment as an official state ideology. In so doing, they demonstrate how China draws on its past to further its own alternative vision of the current international system. Contributors. Daniel A. Bell, Chishen Chang, Kuan-Hsing Chen, Prasenjit Duara, Hsieh Mei-yu, Haiyan Lee, Mark Edward Lewis, Lin Chun, Viren Murthy, Lisa Rofel, Ban Wang, Wang Hui, Yiqun Zhou. (shrink)

This article offers a critical overview of a set of normative theories, namely Tianxia 天下 (all-under-heaven), whose purpose is to provide a renewed conceptual framework for the improvement of the world system. First, the article introduces the origins, main features, and differences within Tianxia, before discussing two major criticisms leveled against it. The article then argues that the most powerful parts of these criticisms come from the challenges posed against Tianxia’s legitimacy. The article elaborates on this and (...) introduces two additional challenges of the same kind which were not discussed before. While the article leaves open the question of whether Tianxia is a realistic utopia, it insists that meaningful discussion of Tianxia must take legitimacy challenges seriously. It ends with a discussion concerning whether China can be understood as a civilization-state and how this understanding affects Tianxia’s reception as a realistic utopia. (shrink)

1. IntroductionCan the discourse of tianxia (“All-under-Heaven”) provide a peaceful resolution to the “Taiwan problem”? This article seeks to address this question. The urgency of such a resolution seems to be evident at this moment: since the Russian invasion of Ukraine, starting on February 24, 2022, observers of international politics have focused on the People’s Republic of China (PRC) with regard to its position on Russia’s aggression, on the one hand, and to its decision on Taiwan, on the other. (...) Consequently, the question of “Will Taiwan be the next Ukraine?” was raised so frequently that the PRC’s former minister of foreign affairs had to urge other states to stop drawing a comparison between Taiwan and Ukraine.1 However, such a call has not eased the concern over the PRC’s potential invasion of Taiwan, as key actors in international politics, such as the United States, the European Union, and the United Kingdom, continue to reiterate their position regarding a peaceful resolution between China and Taiwan,2 suggesting the lack of it to this day. (shrink)

This article tackles the theories of global justice whose “Chinese-style” cosmopolitanism is espoused by the notion of tianxia 天下. Specifically, I first examine the Chinese-style cosmopolitanism driven by the reinterpretation of tianxia. In doing so, I claim that it retains the very fallacy that can be found in liberal cosmopolitanism in failing to provide us with a regulative principle through which different justifications for justice can be steered toward a democratic deliberation between states. Second, through analyzing Dialogue on (...) Mount Uisan by Hong Daeyong 洪大容, I explore an alternative conception of tianxia in which all countries are placed on an equal footing rather than in a hierarchy. Finally, putting forward the ethics of differences in Dialogue on Mount Uisan, I will suggest a principle of reciprocity in which non-domination as a regulative principle can help better establish a discursive stance between states without a central hegemon. (shrink)

The discourse on freedom that Kant unfolds in his writings on the history of philosophy, especially in his essay Idea for a Universal History with Cosmopolitan Intent (1784), is a constitutive component of the moral perspective whose key concept is the notion of freedom. This is why critical philosophy, as Kant says, has its own “chiliastic expectation”, and the critical philosopher is a prophet who himself “occasions und produces the events he predicts”. Questions concerning the proper use of freedom – (...) how does freedom position itself in the individual ethics of each person when he/she wants to act morally, how does it position the community in legal ethics when it merges in a liberal state through the peacemaking function of the law, or how does the community of states position itself in international law when, with cosmopolitan intent, freedom devotes itself to a utopian peace mission – these are always questions concerning the concept of freedom which has emerged from a critical process of arbitration. (shrink)

Confucius is finally rehabilitated. Party dignitaries kneel at his ancestral shrine. The benevolent Confucian is a new image of China for the outside, and for Chinese dealing with the collapse of ideology and the moral fabric of their society. The word tianxia is usually translated “all under Heaven.” It has a complicated history and a complicated contemporary appropriation in a desperate ideology-cum-PR campaign. The tianxia-idea is that China has for millennia been a government of all under heaven. It (...) was such a government in the past, is one today, and offers the whole world its benevolent alternative to liberalism and democracy. More than one contributor to this strong collection of interesting essays suspects that the Confucian revival is an act of desperation. As soft power, Confucianism may be no match for global capitalism. Soft power is not readily synthesized by official campaign. Its genuine source is in everyday life, and the life of ordinary Chinese is without much resonance beyond its borders. The whole world uses Chinese electronics, though almost none but the Chinese read their books, watch their television, or listen to their music. The world’s love affair with China is fixated on the economic numbers and is no less capricious. It has never been clear whether tianxia means a cultural realm without political boundaries, as is urged by modern ideologists, or is just another word for China, which is how modern Chinese dictionaries explain it. On the official account, membership in “all under Heaven” is a matter of shared culture, sustained by affective ties rather than coercion, but it is a culture that values order over freedom, ethics over law, and authority over democracy and human rights. Outsiders worry that tianxia is the cloak of a rising hegemon. However, the important audience for lofty talk of tianxia may be internal. Whether foreigners really trust it may be less urgent than for the Chinese to believe it about themselves. Postsocialist China has no unifying vision and has yet to honestly scrutinize official socialism. The new discourse of tianxia speaks to their need for a vision of their place in the world. The image of a tianxia government of benevolent authority may be more useful for identity within China than for offering the world a viable alternative to democracy and human rights. (shrink)

A longstanding orthodoxy holds that the Mohists regard the promotion of li (benefit, 利) as their ultimate normative criterion, meaning that they measure what is yi (just, 義) or buyi (unjust, 不義) depending on whether it maximizes li or not. This orthodoxy dates back at least to Joseph Edkins (1859), who saw Mozi as a utilitarian and an ally of Bentham. In this paper, we will argue that this orthodoxy should be reconsidered because it does not square with several passages (...) from the Mozi. That the Mohists place a strong weight on the promotion of ‘li for the whole world (tianxia zhi li, 天下之利)’ is uncontroversial. We argue, however, that in certain cases the Mohist moral calculus diverges in its rationale or outcome from li-promotionalism. This position rejects the orthodoxy by showing that Mohism and li-promotionalism are not entirely coterminous. (shrink)

Reformed catholicity suffers from a fragility that causes it to easily fragment over comparatively small differences. This study wagers that an important resource that can be useful for addressing this problem is the Chinese philosophy of tianxia. The article introduces the idea of a ‘Reformed catholicity under Heaven’ by placing a more liberal interpretation of tianxia in conversation with the problems in Reformed approaches to the church’s catholicity. In doing so, the article demonstrates tianxia’s ecclesiological usefulness while (...) articulating two dimensions of ‘Reformed catholicity under Heaven’ that can deepen how Reformed churches inhabit catholicity in ways that promote unity. (shrink)

This book studies Eric Voegelin's (1901-1985) Theory of Order. It focuses on Voegelin's interpretation of order/disorder, his penetration of the Tianxia (the Chinese Ecumene), and his comparison of representative heterogenous Ecumenes in the ancient West and East. In doing so, the book explores universal humankind and the nature of order-searching.

This article reveals the philosophical value of the Confucian treatise "Kong-zi jia yu," it examines issues of the theoretical importance for the history of world sinology. In the historicо-philosophical tradition, this text has long been attributed to the Confucian scientist Van Su, however, not so long ago the situation changed significantly. In the modern scientific community, disputes around the authorship and time of writing this treatise continue. The content of "Kong-zi jia yu" is composed of stories from the life of (...) Confucius, his conversations with his closest students, as well as prominent political figures of that time. These conversations are philosophical dialogues, they concern the most important ontological, ethical, aesthetic and epistemological issues, such as: harmonization of the Tianxia on the basis of virtuous management, the philosophical need for ritual practice, cosmological device of the Tianxia, issues traditional for early Confucianism of a pedagogical and educational nature, moral self-improvement. The diverse theme of "Kong-zi jia yu" is a valuable source that reveals the essence of the philosophy of early Confucianism. Individual fragments of "Kong-zi jia yu" coincide with the classic Confucian monuments "Shang shu," "Lun yu," "Xiao jing," etc. Although "Kong-zi jia yu" for a number of reasons, is not considered a classic text of Confucianism, but it carries an enduring philosophical value. The study of "Kong-zi jia yu" seems to the author of this work to be an urgent scientific task, the solution of which can expand the arsenal of world philosophical knowledge, as well as contribute to the dialogue of the philosophical cultures of the East and West. (shrink)

The emergence of any idea must have a deep-seated social background, and at the same time there must be an intellectual source that cannot be neglected. That is to say, every idea must have as its foundation some piece of intellectual material that has been handed down by people of the past. Lao Zi once said: "All Things Under Heaven [tianxia wanwu] are born of Existence [you]; Existence [you] is born of Nonexistence [wu]." This does not mean that existence (...) is born out of nothingness or nonexistence [xuwu]. In reality, what Lao Zi meant by "Nonexistence" [wu] is actually itself a kind of existence; but because its state of existence [cunzai zhuangtai] is different from that of Existence [you], it is called "Nonexistence" [wu] instead. This difference of the states of existence lies in [the following]: Existence has form, and therefore can be sensed; Non-existence has no form, and therefore cannot be sensed. In the chapter "Fei ming" of the book Mo Zi there is the passage that says: "Something can be heard, something can be seen; we call it Existence; something cannot be heard, cannot be seen; we call it Destruction [wang] [wu]." Even though the meanings of "Existence" and "Nonexistence" here are different from those in Lao Zi's idea, we may still trust that the general interpretation of "Existence" and "Nonexistence" here would still meet with Lao Zi's approval. In Lao Zi's view, even though Nonexistence cannot be comprehended through sensation, it can be grasped by metaphysical and mystical "vision." Lao Zi's expression that "Existence is born of Nonexistence" was not only an expression of his viewpoint on the question of the origin of "all things under heaven," but also a general rule for us to follow in examining the evolution of human thought. On the one hand, it demonstrates that every single idea must have its source, its intellectual origin; on the other hand, it points out that the idea that serves another as intellectual source may be hidden, not overt, at times. On the surface, some ideas may appear to have no "genealogical origin"—water without a fountainhead or well spring, and yet, perhaps, if we were to conduct further investigation and research, we would discover that they all have some ancient source, some long-forgotten well spring. That is precisely what this essay hopes to accomplish—to attempt to explore in a preliminary way the ancient source of Lao Zi's thought. (shrink)

The works of the Huang-Lao school include the seven chapters of "Tian di" , "Tiandao" , "Tianyun" , "Zaiyou, xia" , "Keyi" , "Shanxing" , and "Tianxia" . In the following we shall refer to these collectively, and by way of abbreviation, as the "Heaven's Way" chapters. Of this group of "essays," the "All Under Heaven" chapter appeared relatively early in time, whereas all the others represented later works in the book Zhuang Zi. In general, however, they all were (...) works produced in the pre-Qin era. The ideas presented by this group of essays are significantly different from those contained in the "inner chapters" of Zhuang Zi, and there are also clear and important differences between the Huang-Lao school and the other schools—namely, the Shu Zhuang school and the Wu Jun school—of latter-day Zhuang Zi thinkers. The ideas presented here of the Huang-Lao school, however, are basically consistent with the characteristics of the ideas conveyed in the "silk-scroll" ancient books on the teachings ascribed to the Yellow Emperor and to Lao Zi that have been discovered in Han-dynasty tombs, and with the way in which Sima Tan described and critiqued the school of Daoism. Therefore, we have called the authors of this group of essays the Huang-Lao school among latter-day Zhuang Zi thinkers. The works of the Huang-Lao school are not only material for the study of the evolving conditions within Zhuang Zi philosophy, but are also important grist for the mill in the study of the "teachings of the Yellow Emperor and of Lao Zi". (shrink)

본고는 동아시아의 문화권에서 유가의 사상이 어떻게 국가공동체의 통치이념으로 자리잡았을 수 있었는가 하는 문제의식에서 출발한다. 그것은 漢代에 동중서가 유가의 王道를 채택하여 국가의 체제를 확립하는 이념화의 과정과 맞물려있다. 그는 公羊學의 비판정신에 입각하여 大一統의 공동체의식을 확립하고 天下經綸의 경계를 확보하고자 하였다. 이러한 지향성에는 삼중의 노선, 즉 學統, 道統및 政統의 입체적 노선이 있다. 즉 學統의 이론적 체계에 따라 道統의 대원칙을 계승하고 政統의 정당성을 확보하려는 것이다. 이들의 입체적 노선은 道義의 명분에 따라 正義의 실현을 모색하는 通權達變의 治世觀에서 설명된다. 이러한 치세관은 한왕조의 정통성과 그에 따른 통치의 정당성을 확보하기 (...) 위한 초석을 다졌다. 그것은 당위적 도덕성과 합리적 현실성 사이에 긴장관계를 지속적으로 유발시키는 정치철학의 문제로 표출되었다. 이는 王道와 覇道의 모순이나 충돌과 같은 정치철학의 문제를 노출시켰다. 예를 들어, 한왕조가 개창되고 왕조의 교체라는 대의명분을 확보하기 위해 新王의 합법성이 필요하였다. 동중서는 주나라의 왕실을 존중하는 존왕의 명분을 한왕조를 개창한 新王의 실리로 전환하였다. 즉 尊王의 春秋學的명분을 넘어 新王의 公羊學的 명분을 내세웠다. 존왕에서 신왕으로의 변용은 통치권력의 의지가 이동하는 특징을 시사적으로 드러내고 있다. 여기에는 王道와 覇道사이에 서로 양분할 수 없는 관계, 즉 상생과 상극의 미묘한 관계가 성립한다. 여기에는 왕도와 패도의 미묘한 긴장관계, 즉 패도의 부당성을 왕도의 정당성으로 변용하는 逆說的측면도 있다. 이러한 通權達變의 治世觀은 결국에 정치의 윤리화 혹은 윤리의 정치화를 낳는 결과를 초래하였다. 여기에는 역사적 교훈의 필연성과 시대적 요청의 절박성이라는 양단의 칼날(dilemma)을 충족시키기 위한 천하경륜의 지속가능한 경계가 반영되어 있다. (shrink)

As one of the most eye-catching and intuitive evangelical tools, the Mappa Mundi was brought to China by the first group of Jesuit missionaries who entered this Asian country in the 16th century. Their purpose was to change the Chinese view of the universe and thus affect their traditional beliefs by introducing geography, astronomy, and cartography knowledge from the West. However, the indifference and resistance among Chinese scholars show that they perceived these missionaries’ scheme as an attempt to thoroughly shake (...) the national ideology and social structure based on Confucian philosophy. This paper aims to reveal the fundamental tension between Confucianism and Christianity through the Mappa Mundi in dynastic times. (shrink)

Studies on Chinese nationalism in Western academia have been influenced by a popular theory called ‘the culturalism-to-nationalism thesis’, a loosely formulated interpretive paradigm which emerged in late 1960s. The literature on this topic, however, reveals an inadequate understanding of traditional Chinese thinking and its influence on Chinese thought in modern history. An examination of the work of Li Dazhao (1889–1927) and his philosophical heritage not only will open up a valuable source for us to rethink about this thesis and its (...) defects, but also will shed light on the complicated background and perspective that give rise to modern Chinese nationalism. Given the interest in Chinese nationalism in contemporary world, an understanding of its historical roots is particularly timely, since in order to understand China’s current and future actions one must understand the origins of Chinese nationalist thinking and its transformations in time. This paper makes a contribution to that historical understanding. I argue that traditional Chinese philosophy, especially the Daoist world view and Confucian ethics played a significant role in shaping Li’s patriotic and nationalist stance. It also predisposed him intellectually to accept the internationalist characteristic of Marxism. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content: Reviewed by: The Myth or Elegy of Artificial Intelligence by Tingyang ZhaoXuejian Zhou (bio)Rengongzhineng de shenhua huo beige 人工智能的神話或悲歌 ( The Myth or Elegy of Artificial Intelligence). By Tingyang Zhao 趙汀陽. Beijing: The Commercial Press, 2022. Pp. 155. Hardcover RMB68, isbn 978-981-16-7749-6. In recent years, the philosophy of artificial intelligence has undoubtedly become one of the most popular topics. There is a vague viewpoint suggesting that Chinese philosophy (...) might face challenges in addressing the philosophical issues posed by artificial intelligence. However, compared to the past, when discussing Chinese philosophy today, we must acknowledge the significant impact of modern technology. While the contemporary world does indeed witness clashes of civilizations, individuals from various civilizations share a common predicament: their close entanglement with modern technology. Regarding the future of Chinese philosophy, it becomes crucial to direct our attention towards modern advancements like artificial intelligence and the diverse range of issues they introduce. In light of this context, Zhao Tingyang's 趙汀陽 new book, The Myth or Elegy of Artificial Intelligence, presents us with a fresh perspective. In this book, Zhao primarily delves into the philosophical issues surrounding Super Artificial Intelligence, a subject regarded as both a metaphysical and a political problem. This notion refers to artificial intelligence that surpasses general artificial intelligence in terms of functionality, and possesses self-consciousness. Therefore, "myth" refers to the myth of the emergence of Super Artificial Intelligence disrupting people's subjectivity, giving rise to a new myth of artificial intelligence. Conversely, the term "elegy" embodies the crisis in human destiny that stems from such profound changes, which will lead to an ontological revolution in human existence. This suggests that within the narrative of artificial intelligence's myth, there lies the elegy of humanity (p. 4). The intricate interplay between these two realms of myth and elegy vividly showcases the value of Chinese philosophy. The book consists of a total of ten chapters. In Chapter 1, Zhao initially presents a thought-provoking question. With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence humanity is faced with a novel ontological event, where the existence of artificial intelligence could potentially jeopardize human existence. This presents an ontological problem of "de-existence" (p. 8). As current artificial intelligence remains within the domain of the Turing machine concept and lacks subjectivity, it cannot effectively engage in matters involving self-correlation or [End Page 1] infiniteness. However, if artificial intelligence evolves into a super Turing machine endowed with subjectivity and free will, it could gain the capacity to modify its own programs and societal norms based on its needs or maximal benefits. This scenario introduces the possibility of a crisis in human existence, where the very existence of humanity is put at risk (pp. 17-23). In Chapter 2, Zhao analyzes the safety conditions of artificial intelligence and proposes the need to establish self-destruct mechanisms for Super Artificial Intelligence to ensure the status of human existence (pp. 34-38). Interestingly, in this context, Zhao connects artificial intelligence with the concept of Tianxia 天下 ("all under heaven"), implying that in order to control capital and power, the world needs a new form of politics, namely, a Tianxia 天下 system. Tianxia 天下 represents a world system that ensures world peace and the shared interests of people in a multicultural context, a non-exclusive system defining the world beyond any particular entity. According to Zhao, only a Tianxia 天下 system can manage the technological risks of the world (p. 39). Theoretically (hopefully in practice as well), a significant application of the Tianxia 天下 system would be to use global authority to limit any high-risk behaviors. Based on the first two chapters, it becomes apparent that the dangers related to artificial intelligence do not lie in its current capabilities, but in its potential for self-consciousness. For this reason, in Chapter 3, Zhao analyzes this issue further. In his view, once artificial intelligence possesses the ability for self-reflection, it will become possible for it to transform its own system and create new rules. Especially if artificial intelligence invents a universal language of its own, equivalent to human natural language, then all program systems could be reinterpreted, reconstructed, and redefined using this universal language (pp. 47-52). Furthermore, if... (shrink)