Mongolian philosophical underpinnings of well‐being were expressed in the form of mythology, shamanism and Mongolian Buddhism before the development of modern nursing in Mongolia. Among these forms, the philosophical underpinnings of well‐being, mythology and shamanism were formed as a result of the roots of Mongolian philosophy, whereas Buddhism spread relatively late. As a result of Mongolian mythology, an alternative approach called dom zasal was formed, and it remains one of the important foundations of the idea of (...) well‐being among people. Among the various concepts of shamanism, the concept of sunesu best expresses the underpinning of well‐being, and the idea that healing and nursing care can be provided not only by those living in this world but also by spirit beings. Since Mongolians still use these ideas even in modern times, it should be noted that following them too narrowly may conflict with concepts based on scientific evidence. Along with the development of Buddhist philosophy in Mongolia, the Oriental philosophical underpinnings of well‐being have spread. One of the most important concepts is the five basic elements of life (tavan mahabhutas) and three elements of the body (khii, shar and badgan). While developing the concepts of life and the body, the arga‐bileg model (yin‐yang in Chinese), developed at the theoretical level in Chinese philosophy, has become a popular basis for culture and customs among Mongolians. Therefore, it has been difficult to judge whether the origin of the arga‐bileg model is Mongolian or Chinese; however, this is undeniably an important underpinning for well‐being in both countries. (shrink)

Mongolian historians divide the spread out Buddhism in Mongolia three periods: The first period of Hun empire, the second period of the Mongol empire and third period from XVI century onwards. From the XVI century Mongols translated the numerous Buddhist moral doctrines: “Subashid”, “Eulogies of Paramita”, “The Stages of the path to enlightenment”, “Shastra of wood”, “Sahstra of water”, “Songs of the world of vessel and contents”, “Lamp for the path to enlightenment”, “A drop of Nourishment for People” of (...) Nagarjuna, etc. Therefore, ethical doctrine occupies an important place in Mongolian Buddhism. Mongol scholars made their own commentaries and took as an example the works of Indian and Tibetan great scholars who created their own ethical doctrines. An influence on Buddhist rituals and theology via Buddhist ethical doctrines was spread among the nobles and the ordinary people. The late Academician Ch. Jugder saw the period from the 16th to 18th centuries as important period for Buddhism in Mongolia. It permeated in nomadic way of life and national customs. Especially, Madhyamaka prasangika philosophy was developed, while Mongolian Buddhist philosophical works started from the first Mongolian Bogdo Lama Undur Gegeen Zanabazar’s works. Mongol thinkers contributed greatly in the development of Buddhist ethics. (shrink)

Multilingual dictionary of philosophical terms.

Mongolian philosophy on governance aiming at reforming Mongolian society; transliterated from old Mongolian into Cyrillic.

Mongolian translation of the authors' history of Mongolian philosophy.

Indigenous understandings of consciousness represent an important inspiration for scientific discussions about the nature of consciousness. Despite the fact that Indigenous concepts are not outputs of a research driven by rigorous, scientific methods, they are of high significance, because they have been formed by hundreds of years of specific routes of cultural evolution. The evolution of Indigenous cultures proceeded in their native habitat. The meanings that emerged in this process represent adaptive solutions that were optimal in the given environmental and (...) social milieu. We argue that it would not be appropriate to handle these meanings as something that science considers to be wrong, or outdated relics of the human past. In contrast, Indigenous concepts and their meanings may be considered to be an important heritage of native human populations, but moreover, they are also an interesting material for analyses and inspiration for recent scientific debates. Furthermore, it is also necessary to mention another reason why the exploration of Indigenous concepts has been so topical recently. Thus far, much psychological theoretical development has been published in English as a result of research conducted in Western countries. The dominance of English and the superiority of research conducted by researchers from Western countries may be considered as a kind of barrier toward other ways of knowing. We argue that the traditional cultural knowledge coming from Indigenous societies may offer an interesting source of new thought for science. The weakening of the strong dependence of science on well-established academic circles dominated by Western theoretical perspectives may be beneficial for stimulating its further development (Sidik, 2022). Therefore, this special symposium of the Journal of Consciousness Studies aims to open the doors for other ways of knowing, For the knowing that emerged in native Indigenous cultures. We argue that the rich cultural heritage of these societies may stimulate the emergence of new analytical perspectives for scientific theorising about the nature of consciousness. For all these reasons, the Indigenous concepts of consciousness captured our interest, and we decided to start investigating them. In 2020 and 2021, we retrieved and analysed pieces of information from past ethnographical field evidence gathered in various Indigenous cultures. After removal of data about the cultures showing a high acceptance of influences from external religious traditions (e.g. Christianity, Islam or Buddhism), a comparative analysis of data from 55 Indigenous groups was conducted and published in the Journal of Consciousness Studies (Trnka and Lorencova, 2022). This primary project revealed many interesting results, but more importantly, it also showed many unexplored avenues that called for further exploration. This special symposium of the Journal of Consciousness Studies is a continuation and new development of research on the Indigenous understanding of consciousness. Past ethnographical evidence involved some valuable pieces of knowledge about Indigenous concepts of consciousness, but the relevant information was often fragmentary or even totally missing in some cases. Moreover, many authors of past ethnographic records applied a strong etic approach that clouded the understanding of native Indigenous thoughts. Therefore, the main goal of the recent symposium was to broaden the overall information basis for the analysis of Indigenous concepts of consciousness or closely related phenomena. In other words, the symposium aimed to bring more detailed knowledge of Indigenous concepts of consciousness, mind and body and their relations in various groups of Indigenous people. In 2022, we contacted potential contributors and were pleased by their positive reactions, which reflected the topicality of this research focus. The authors were asked to draft their papers with a special focus on (a) a cultural Indigenous understanding of the concept of consciousness, (b) a cultural Indigenous understanding of the mind-body differentiation (or consciousness-body differentiation) and (c) cultural metaphors and cultural beliefs related to consciousness, mind and body. Many of contributors were native members of Indigenous cultures that made the descriptions of Indigenous concepts more accurate and reliable. This enabled many truly emic, in-depth insights into the Indigenous concepts of consciousness and related phenomena to be gained. As a result, this issue of the Journal of Consciousness Studies introduces eight papers, each focused on a different geographical region/Indigenous groups: Nahua and Maya (Mexico), Guna (Panama), Mapuche (Chile), Maori (New Zealand), Telingit (Altai), Mongolian groups, Igbo (Nigeria) and Asabano (New Guinea). These papers are followed by one more general paper discussing magical consciousness on the case of an Aboriginal wise man (Australia). The symposium closes with our concluding editorial essay, which generalises the findings and introduces three theoretical models of understandings of consciousness inspired by the analysis of Indigenous concepts of consciousness. Aside from the importance for basic research, the exploration of Indigenous concepts of consciousness is also very important for informing practitioners from many applied spheres. Many current methods for treating addictions, traumatic life events, professional burnout and other mental health problems use features of Indigenous healing practices. A proper understanding of meanings related to mind, body and consciousness are quite important for Western psychotherapists to adapt the Indigenous practices to particular Western cultural milieus. Furthermore, a proper understanding of meanings related to mind, body, and consciousness is also important for treating ethnic, linguistic and culturally diverse populations (APA, 1990). For therapists, psychologists and physicians, understanding the meanings of these concepts may promote their own better care of their clients from various Indigenous ethnic groups. Last but not least, Indigenous concepts, meanings and languages are closely related to the continuation of the heritage of Indigenous people (United Nations, 2016). The world’s Indigenous languages have recently been under threat of disappearing; many Indigenous languages are endangered globally, and the rate of loss is high (United Nations, 2016). Importantly, recent research has also shown that the retention of Indigenous languages may be protective for the psychological and physical health of their speakers. All these areas represent fields for potential use of the findings presented in this symposium of the Journal of Consciousness Studies. As a concluding note, the editors of this symposium hope that this collection of papers will inspire academic scholars while also providing important information for practitioners from various spheres. (shrink)

Historical study on Mongolian philosophical ideology.

Mongolian cultural thought compared to Chinese.

Comparative study of Mongolian and world philosophy of the human beings' supernatural abilities.

History of Mongolian philosophy; covers 13th-18th centuries.

History of Mongolian philosophy, intellectual life, and politics; covers until 14th century.

History of Mongolian philosophy, intellectual life, and politics; covers until 14th century.

Scholarly papers by Gėlėgzhamt︠s︡yn Luvsant︠s︡ėrėn on Mādhyamika, Buddhist philosophy, Mongolian philosophy and Buddhist studies in Mongolia.

Comparative study on Western, Eastern and Mongolian philosophy.

Mongolian traditional teaching of reasoning.

Mostly consists of works composed in Tibetan, with translations into Mongolian, on the Soyombo script.

Selected philosophical works by Mongolian Buddhist monk Zava Damdin, translated from Tibetan.

Review of the Modern Mongolian philosophical history.

Study on the principles of Mongolian philosophy.

Research monography about the works of famous Mongolian writer, scholar B. Rinchen.

Sociological and philosophical analyses made in modern Mongolian society.

Author's hypothesis about Yin yang theory.

Collected articles and papers on philosophy.

Conference proceedings on Mongolian contributions to Buddhist knowledge.

Theory of dualism and individualism in Mongolian philosophy.

A study of the culture and civilization of Mongolia.

Russian-Mongolian dictionary of philosophical terms.

Philosophy. Describes the present contemporary philosophy as it is for philosophy students and interested people. The author is one of leading Philosophy Scholars in Mongolia. The book is published in 300 copies.

A collection of writings on Buddhist philosophy.

Explores some steps toward non-assimilative encounters in the "global village.".