ResumenBasado en elementos de la filosofía clásica, el common sense británico y la Escuela de Frankfurt, el autor postula un sentido común guiado críticamente, que serviría para evaluar las tendencias históricas y los modelos de modernización en el Tercer Mundo. Evitando extremos, este teorema rechazaría tanto las pretensiones de verdad de muchos enfoques racionalistas como el relativismo epistemológico y ético. La existencia de leyes y etapas obligatorias de la historia es uno de esos extremos; otro es la opción teórica que (...) afirma que los modelos culturales son incomparables e inconmensurables entre sí. La existencia de un solo paradigma normativo-positivo de desarrollo es insostenible, pero igualmente la posición que decreta la diversidad e incomparabilidad totales de los regímenes civilizatorios. Es conveniente adoptar una línea intermedia entre universalismo y particularismo y alcanzar una síntesis fructífera de ambos.Palabras claveEscuela de Frankfurt, Habermas, Kant, particularismo, sentido común, universalismoAbstractBased on elements of classical philosophy, the British common sense and the Frankfurt School, the author proposes a critically guided common sense, which could be used to evaluate historical tendencies and specially the modernization efforts in the Third World. Avoiding extremes, this theorem rejects the pretensions of truth of rationalist theories and also the epistemic and ethic relativism. The existence of obligatory laws and periods of historical development is one of these extremes; the other one is the position which states that cultural models are incomparable and immeasurable. It is reasonable, for instance, to take a middle way between universalism and particularism and also to reach a fruitful synthesis between both currents.KeywordsCommon sense, Frankfurt School, Habermas, Kant, particularism, universalism. (shrink)

Las teorías posmodernas no son tan originales como sus seguidores lo presumen. El escepticismo clásico de la era helenística constituye el más interesante precursor del posmodernismo a causa de su inexorable relativismo y, paradójicamente, por su propensión al oportunismo ideológico y el conservatismo político. Los antiguos escépticos y los posmodernos contemporáneos han solido ser gentes desilusionadas con las doctrinas revolucionarias y los sistemas filosóficos de supuesta validez universal. De allí han evolucionado una muy razonable tendencia antidogmática y algunas técnicas para (...) desintegrar las bien urdidas construcciones teoréticas, pero también han procedido a partir de un principio dogmático: si todo conocimiento, percepciones y proposiciones son relativas e inciertas, esta misma sentencia es por lo tanto incierta, y abre la posibilidad de un conocimiento relativamente cierto. En la esfera política, el principio de ?todo vale? se vuelve un lema conservador: si todas las opciones son tan buenas o tan malas como cualquier otra, uno tiene a regirse por el orden existente como el mal menor. (shrink)

El presente artículo hace una reflexión sobre la relación del ideario de Nietzsche con la corriente actual del postmodernismo, a través del pensamiento de la Escuela de Frankfurt. Se examina el papel inspirador de Nietzsche en varias de las figuras principales de esta Escuela, como Theodor Adorno y Max Horkheimer. Ideas como las de relativismo, voluntad de poder y totalitarismo -analizadas aquí críticamente- sirven para tejer una influencia siempre poderosa y presente, tanto en el pensamiento frankfurtiano como en el postmodernismo.

Este ensayo trata de la confrontación entre principios universalistas y particularistas en lo que respecta a la construcción de identidades colectivas y nacionalidades (con especial referencia al Tercer Mundo). Por un lado tenemos los principios universalistas, basados generalmente en el racionalismo clásico y la Ilustración, cuyo representante más conspicuo en el campo de la filosofía comparativa de la historia fue el Marqués de Condorcet. A esta corriente se le puede achacar una equiparación entre ciencias naturales y sociales, un optimismo histórico (...) acrítico y una clara tendencia niveladora y centralizadora. Por otro lado tenemos los principios particularistas, relativistas y parcialmente tradicionalistas, que sostienen la autonomía de las ciencias sociales y que buscan comprender la verdad inherente a las llamadas culturas arcaicas y extra-europeas, mediante un impulso intuitivo y reconstructivo (que contiene aspectos identificatorios y empáticos). Dos de los representantes moderados de esta tendencia son G.B. Vico y J.G. Herder. Mediante una crítica de ambas corrientes el autor cree posible una síntesis fructífera de ambos principios, considerados como complementarios (sobre todo en sus versiones moderadas): la ética universal (en especial los derechos humanos) sería la base para un derecho efectivo a la diferencia. (shrink)

A través de un recuento de elementos biográficos, el autor despliega no solo una visión de la evolución de su pensamiento filosófico, sino además de la evolución misma de algunas de las ideas más debatidas en el mundo filosófico de la segunda mitad del siglo XX, y las cuales influyeron en la elaboración de su teoría crítica de la modernización, la cual aquí se expone en líneas generales.

Bolivia -como muchas naciones en el Tercer Mundo- está cada vez más inmersa en el universo globalizado contemporáneo, cuyos productos, valores y hasta tonterías va adoptando de modo inexorable. En este contexto no resulta fácil distinguir un paradigma propio y genuino de desarrollo de un modelo exte..

La cultura tiene por tarea esencial brindar un entorno de estabilidad a la especie humana. El hombres, en cuanto ser incompleto, tiene que ponerse constantemente en cuestión e interpretarse siempre de nuevo; para ello precisa de apoyos, paradigmas y ejemplos, y la religión fue durante larguísimo tiempo el principal de todos ellos. Hace falta hoy en día, como en cualquier época pasada, algún vínculo emotivo, obviamente relacionado con la ética, que impida la descomposición social y moral, un peligro inherente a (...) toda sociedad humana. El mejor vínculo emotivo, que además otorga sentido a las actividades humanas, ha sido la religión, que probablemente seguirá ejerciendo esa función por mucho tiempo. (shrink)

El texto muestra la complejidad de la discusión en torno al sentido y la dirección de la historia, y sobre todo la dificultad mayor de una dotación de sentido a favor del desarrollo histórico en el mundo actual. El artículo reconstruye brevemente la posición pesimista de la Escuela de Frankfurt sobre este tema, posición que representa una respuesta al optimismo convencional del liberalismo y del marxismo, desde una crítica de los resultados debidos a la tecnología y a la vista de (...) los problemas ecológicos. Finalmente se esboza el escepticismo moderado de Karl Löwith como un compromiso aceptable. (shrink)

El artículo presenta aspectos de la confrontación entre el pensamiento religioso y la racionalidad contemporánea, a partir de ideas de pensadores de nuestra época como Horckheimer, Habermas, Savater, y otros, quienes plantean que el presente panorama cultural en el cual la investigación científica y el progreso técnico difunden conocimientos y actitudes secularistas y cientificistas, se aleja de consideraciones éticas esenciales al ser humano. Pero la dimensión religiosa puede aportar criterios éticos para un principio de responsabilidad global frente al mundo y (...) el hombre, ya que esa es y sigue siendo función primaria y aun válida de la religiosidad. (shrink)

RESUMEN Se analiza si la versión de la justicia como equidad, presentada en El liberalismo político, es genuinamente una concepción política. Se examina el problema de la razonabilidad de las doctrinas comprehensivas, y se indaga luego si el argumento en dos etapas afecta la integridad estructural del liberalismo político. Se concluye que J. Rawls fracasa en su intento de justificar un liberalismo independiente de una doctrina comprehensiva de carácter liberal. ABSTRACT The article analyzes whether the conception of justice as fairness, (...) set forth by Rawls in Political Liberalism, is a genuine political conception. It first examines the issue of reasonableness of comprehensive doctrines and then goes on to inquire whether the two-step argument affects the structural integrity of political liberalism. The paper concludes that J. Rawls fails in his attempt to justify liberalism independently of a comprehensive liberal doctrine. (shrink)

En contra de las actuales tendencias postmodernistas, el autor postula una simbiosis entre los elementos positivos de lo premoderno y los correspondientes de la modernidad. Cree posible rescatar las llamadas tradiciones razonables, y combinarlas con lo positivo de la modernidad. Uno de los factores positivos de la tradicionalidad sería la religión en cuanto fuente de sentido y consuelo. Esfuerzos sincretistas similares en otros campos constituyen gran parte la historia universal.

RESUMENLa eliminación de instituciones y concepciones premodernas es considerada generalmente como imprescindible y positiva para acelerar la evolución histórica y alcanzar el anhelado objetivo del progreso material. La tradicionalidad ha sido desde entonces vista como algo fundamentalmente negativo. El proceso de modernización engloba, sin embargo, factores destructivos, que recién ahora empiezan a ser percibidos de forma realista. Algunos elementos premodernos merecen una mejor suerte en la consciencia intelectual, como la religión en cuanto fuente de sentido y consuelo. Aun es posible (...) rescatar las tradiciones razonables, y combinarlas con lo positivo de la modernidad. Esfuerzos sincretistas similares en otros campos constituyen gran parte de la historia universal.PALABRAS CLAVESELEMENTOS RESCATABLES, MODERNIDAD, ORDEN PREMODERNO, RELIGIÓN, TRADICIÓNABSTRACTThe elimination of premodern institutions and values has been generally considered as unavoidable and therefore as positive for the purposes of accelerating the historical evolution of any society. The traditional order has been supposed to be something basically negative. Modernization embraces, however, destructive factors, which now are increasingly perceived in a more realistic manner. Some premodern aspects deserve a better destiny in collective conscience. An example of that is religion as a source of sense and comfort. It is still possible to rescue some factors of premodern societies and to blend them with the positive aspects of modernity. Similar syncretizing efforts in other fields constitute a fair portion of the history of mankind.KEYWORDSMODERNITY, PREMODERN SOCIETY, PRESERVABLE ASPECTS, RELIGION, TRADITION. (shrink)

Responding to recent concerns about the reliability of the published literature in psychology and other disciplines, we formed the X-Phi Replicability Project to estimate the reproducibility of experimental philosophy. Drawing on a representative sample of 40 x-phi studies published between 2003 and 2015, we enlisted 20 research teams across 8 countries to conduct a high-quality replication of each study in order to compare the results to the original published findings. We found that x-phi studies – as represented in our sample (...) – successfully replicated about 70% of the time. We discuss possible reasons for this relatively high replication rate in the field of experimental philosophy and offer suggestions for best research practices going forward. (shrink)

In the context of reproductive health, policies focused on decriminalising abortion that resulted in religious beliefs, attitudes and behaviours being affected. The main purpose of this article was to identify the religious beliefs of abortion in the emergency situations such as COVID-19. Although there is no general consensus regarding abortion, there is almost ‘general opposition to causing harm to life’ in most religions. In the current study, 28 indicators and four factors (seven for each factor) related to pregnancy termination were (...) explored through an exploratory factor structure. The study was therefore non-experimental, cross-sectional and exploratory, with 100 students selected in a non-probabilistic way. Contribution: The main contribution of this research is to find the variable effects on abortion in emergency conditions regarding religious beliefs. Given the results, behavioural intentions determine a structural model, but religious beliefs explain the solution. Furthermore, data generalisation is not possible due to the context, sample selection and type of analysis. In the local population, a confirmatory factor analysis should be performed with a probabilistic sample selection. (shrink)

Appendix 1 was incomplete in the initial online publication. The original article has been corrected.

Para nadie debe ser tan difícil reconocer que Chile transita por un período de profunda incertidumbre respecto de su destino. Los resultados del pasado 4 de septiembre del año 2022 y 7 de mayo del 2023 son tan erráticos respecto de los anteriores que pareciera que el curso de nuestra política nacional no estuviese gobernado por ningún principio discernible. Al intentar explicarlos, los apasionados culpan a los excesos de la izquierda y otros, al sabotaje de la derecha. Pero esta clase (...) de posturas que intentan reducir el problema a una sola causa autoevidente no permiten ponderar ningún significado posible de lo que ocurrió. Lo mismo aplica para aquellas descripciones de escenarios líquidos donde la multiplicidad de causas se vuelven ininteligibles, diluyendo cualquier explicación como si se tratara de agua escurriendo entre los dedos. Bajo tales condiciones, es imposible afirmar que nos encontramos perdidos o no, pues carecemos de un norte, una dirección, un estándar por el cual evaluar las acciones individuales y colectivas. Y esta situación no solo es aplicable para quienes han intentado ofrecer explicaciones cultas al problema, pues tanto la anomia cada vez más extendida en la población como la confusión de la élite son evidencia de que todos carecemos de una adecuada apreciación del significado de los eventos que han transcurrido durante los últimos años. (shrink)

Resumen:Para nadie debe ser tan difícil reconocer que Chile transita por un período de profunda incertidumbre respecto de su destino. Los resultados del pasado 4 de septiembre del año 2022 y 7 de mayo del 2023 son tan erráticos respecto de los anteriores que pareciera que el curso de nuestra política nacional no estuviese gobernado por ningún principio discernible. Al intentar explicarlos, los apasionados culpan a los excesos de la izquierda y otros, al sabotaje de la derecha. Pero esta clase (...) de posturas que intentan reducir el problema a una sola causa autoevidente no permiten ponderar ningún significado posible de lo que ocurrió. Lo mismo aplica para aquellas descripciones de escenarios líquidos donde la multiplicidad de causas se vuelven ininteligibles, diluyendo cualquier explicación como si se tratara de agua escurriendo entre los dedos. Bajo tales condiciones, es imposible afirmar que nos encontramos perdidos o no, pues carecemos de un norte, una dirección, un estándar por el cual evaluar las acciones individuales y colectivas. Y esta situación no solo es aplicable para quienes han intentado ofrecer explicaciones cultas al problema, pues tanto la anomia cada vez más extendida en la población como la confusión de la élite son evidencia de que todos carecemos de una adecuada apreciación del significado de los eventos que han transcurrido durante los últimos años. (shrink)

A hipótese deste artigo tem o objetivo de mostrar que Samuel Pufendorf utiliza e elabora a distinção efetuada por Hugo Grotius entre direitos perfeitos e imperfeitos. De certo modo Pufendorf vai mais adiante do que Grotius e não apenas aceita a sua distinção, como também a esclarece: os direitos em geral são poderes morais obtidos pela lei que apresentam ao mesmo tempo dois tipos de poder moral e de direitos. No caso dos direitos perfeitos, o homem está por definição (...) autorizado a usar a força para proteger seu exercício do poder. Dentro da sociedade política isso significa que ele pode ir ao tribunal, entre as nações permite a justificativa da guerra. No caso dos direitos imperfeitos, porém, o seu detentor não tem a permissão de exigir seu cumprimento pela força, embora deva ser admitido que obstruir erroneamente seu exercício é algo desumano. O jurista alemão está mais interessado, portanto, em explicar o significado da função da própria distinção. Ele oferece sua explicação em dois estágios: o primeiro explica por que os direitos perfeitos têm de ser cumpridos. Entre as leis da natureza, algumas devem ser observadas simplesmente para que a sociedade possa existir, enquanto outras conduzem a uma existência melhorada. Os direitos perfeitos extraem seu caráter do primeiro tipo de lei, os imperfeitos, do segundo. O segundo estágio da explicação mostra como os direitos imperfeitos e perfeitos suplementam um ao outro.: The article presents some important ideas of the rights discourse of Samuel Pufendorf. The definitions of natural law, the distinction between perfect and imperfect rights. Keywords: Sociability; Natural Law; Rights; State. (shrink)

Mucho ha cambiado desde la trágica experiencia de la batalla de Solferino en 1859, retratada por Dunant en su clásica memoria publicada en 1862 la cual motivó el origen de la Cruz Roja, cuyo sistema global ha crecido de manera exponencial desde entonces y ha contribuido a la elaboración y evolución del derecho de la guerra.

On a widely held characterization, triadic joint attention is the capacity to perceptually attend to an object or event together with another subject. In the last four decades, research in developmental psychology has provided increasing evidence of the crucial role that this capacity plays in socio-cognitive development, early language acquisition, and the development of perspective-taking. Yet, there is a striking discrepancy between the general agreement that joint attention is critical in various domains, and the lack of theoretical consensus on how (...) to account for it. This paper pursues three interrelated aims: (i) it examines the contrast between reductive and non-reductive views of (triadic) joint attention, by bringing into focus the notion of recursive mindreading; (ii) it assembles, advances, and discusses a number of arguments against reductive views; (iii) finally, in dialogue with some prominent non-reductive views, it outlines the case for a non-reductive view that gives pride of place to the idea that co-attenders relate to one another as a ‘you’. (shrink)

Contrary to the common-sense view and positivist aspirations, scientific concepts are often imprecise. Many of these concepts are ambiguous, vague, or have an under-specified meaning. In this paper, I discuss how imprecise concepts promote integration in biology and thus benefit science. Previous discussions of this issue focus on the concepts of molecular gene and evolutionary novelty. The concept of molecular gene helps biologists integrate explanatory practices, while the notion of evolutionary novelty helps them integrate research questions into an interdisciplinary problem (...) New directions in the philosophy of science, Springer, Dordrecht, 2014). In what follows, I compare molecular gene and evolutionary novelty to another imprecise concept, namely biological lineage. This concept promotes two other types of scientific integration: it helps biologists integrate theoretical principles and methodologies into different areas of biology. The concept of biological lineage facilitates these types of integration because it is broad and under-specified in ways that the concepts of molecular gene and evolutionary novelty are not. Hence, I use the concept of biological lineage as a case study to reveal types of integration that have been overlooked by philosophers. This case study also shows that even very imprecise concepts can be beneficial to scientific practice. (shrink)

This collection of essays examines the ways in which disputes and controversies about the application of scientific knowledge are resolved. Four concrete examples of public controversy are considered in detail: the efficacy of Laetrile, the classification of homosexuality as a disease, the setting of safety standards in the workplace, and the utility of nuclear energy as a source of power. The essays in this volume show that debates about these cases are not confined to matters of empirical fact. Rather, as (...) is seen with most scientific and technical controversies, they focus on and are structured by complex ethical, economic, and political interests. Drs. Engelhardt and Caplan have brought together a distinguished group of scholars from the sciences and humanities, who sketch a theory of scientific controversy and attempt to provide recommendations about the ways in which both scientists and the public ought to seek more informed resolutions of highly contentious issues in science and technology. Scientific Controversies is offered as a contribution to the better understanding of the roles of both science and nonscientific interests in disputes and controversies pertaining to science and technology. (shrink)

In Metaphysics Γ, Aristotle argues against those who seem to accept contradictions. He distinguishes between the Sophists, who deny the principle of non-contradiction through arguments, and the Natural Philosophers, whose physical investigations lead to the acceptance of objective contradictions. Heraclitus’ name appears throughout the discussion. Usually, he is associated with the discussion against the Sophists. In this paper, I explore how the discussion with the Natural Philosophers may illuminate both the interpretation of Heraclitus by Aristotle and Heraclitus’ own worldview. To (...) refute the Natural Philosophers, Aristotle proposes a general reconstruction of their reasoning. Roughly, relying on sensory evidence (A1), they see that the same thing changes from one opposite to another (A2). Such a change appears to characterize a generation out of non-being, which a Natural Philosopher does not accept (A3). To solve the problem, despite their different worldviews, Natural Philosophers hint at a state in which opposites co-occur, characterizing an objective contradiction (C). Looking at the discussion in Metaphysics Γ and Heraclitus fragments, sections 1–3 show how assumptions A1, A2, and A3 easily apply to Heraclitus. The case of the conclusion is more challenging. In the case of the Pluralists, the co-existence of opposites characterizes a state in which there is no generation. Such a view does not fit Heraclitus’ mobilism. To argue that Aristotle’s argument is general enough to encompass dynamic views, I examine his problematization of accepting the change of change in Metaphysics K and Physics V. There, after re-stating several points that appear in Metaphysics Γ, Aristotle argues that accepting the becoming of another becoming leads to a state of contradiction in which the becoming is perishing. Heraclitus’ B8, cited in Nicomachean Ethics, gives evidence that, for Aristotle, Heraclitus puts a process at the origin of an opposite process. Moreover, after examining the expression ‘living the death/dying the life’ in B62, I argue that Heraclitus was aware that his worldview implied a dynamic objective contradiction. Finally, an analysis of elemental changes in B36 proves that accepting objective contradictions does not make Heraclitus’ worldview less attractive. (shrink)

The concept of scaffold is widespread in science and increasingly common in evolutionary biology. While this concept figures in causal explanations, it is not clear what scaffolds are and what role they play in those explanations. Here we present evolutionary scaffolding explanation as a distinct type of explanatory strategy, distinguishing it from other types of evolutionary explanation. By doing so, we clarify the meaning of “scaffold” as a causal concept and its potential contribution to accounts of evolutionary novelty and major (...) transitions. (shrink)

This article defends lineage pluralism; the view that biological lineages are not a single, unified type of entity. I analyze aspects of evolutionary theory, phylogenetics, and developmental biology to show that these areas appeal to distinct notions of lineage. I formulate three arguments for lineage pluralism. These arguments undercut the main motivations for lineage monism; the view that biological lineages are a single, unified type of entity. Although this view is rarely made explicit, it is often assumed in philosophy and (...) biology. Hence, this article sheds light on this monistic assumption and shows why lineage pluralism should be adopted instead. (shrink)

In recent years, the explanatory term “scaffold” has been gaining prominence in evolutionary biology. This notion has a long history in other areas, in particular, developmental psychology. In this paper, we connect these two traditions and identify a specific type of explanatory strategy shared between them, namely scaffolding explanations. We offer a new definition of “scaffold” anchored in the explanatory practices of evolutionary biologists and developmental psychologists that has yet to be clearly articulated. We conclude by offering a systematic overview (...) of the various dimensions of scaffolding explanations that further suggests both their usefulness and range of application. (shrink)

This article studies the traditional economic, political and religious alienation in Brazilian society. This retrospective study will analyze the causes and consequences of this alienation, from colonial times until the mid-twentieth century. It was only in the 1940's that Brazilian people began, slowly, to have a voice in the decision taking processes that affected their fate. Brazilian society was established under the aegis of Catholicism, the official religion of the State until 1891, and was ruled by an elite that dominated (...) the economic, political and religious spheres, controlling all the means that were necessary to keep them in power. The underprivileged majority, without any political participation, lived on the crumbs within the acceptable limits for the elite. This process was methodical and systematic. In the mid-twentieth century, for reasons that will be discussed in this article, there was a brief but intense popular interest in taking control of their own fate. This phenomenon was soon aborted by the historical happenings that marked the 1960’s. This study will focus in pondering: is there really a possibility of change in the Brazilian society or is it an unachievable utopia? (shrink)

This article investigates the relationship between emotional sharing and the extended mind thesis. We argue that shared emotions are socially extended emotions that involve a specific type of constitutive integration between the participating individuals’ emotional experiences. We start by distinguishing two claims, the Environmentally Extended Emotion Thesis and the Socially Extended Emotion Thesis. We then critically discuss some recent influential proposals about the nature of shared emotions. Finally, in Sect. 3, we motivate two conditions that an account of shared emotions (...) ought to accommodate: Reciprocal Other-awareness and Integration. Consideration of and discussion of relational accounts of joint attention lead us to the proposal that a construal of socially extended emotions in terms of a constitutive integration of the participating individuals’ experiences is more promising than proposals that simply appeal to various forms of social situatedness, embeddedness, or scaffolding. (shrink)

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be (...) preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. To ensure a quality reading experience, this work has been proofread and republished using a format that seamlessly blends the original graphical elements with text in an easy-to-read typeface. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant. (shrink)

O objetivo é apresentar e discutir algumas propostas de explanação da estrutura predicativa por meio da explicitação da estrutura de papéis temáticos a partir de conceitos semânticos primitivos. A sugestão será a de retomar a teoria dos papéis temáticos para justificar a estrutura predicativa, e assim recuperar a noção de conteúdo semântico estruturado, fundamentando-a no plano pragmático. Para isso, será necessário recusar duas suposições gerais comumente aceitas: que a significatividade das expressões linguísticas baseie-se na conceitualização prévia do mundo, e que (...) a única fonte de conteúdo semântico seja a percepção. A ideia alternativa sugerida será conceber os papéis temáticos como funções discursivas primitivas, nas quais reflete-se não uma conceitualização primitiva do mundo, mas antes a estrutura da situação de interação cooperativa de agentes engajados em atividades comuns. (shrink)