In Arabic and Turkish dictionaries, qıyāmat has a meaning that includes both the end of the world and the day of reckoning. In the Qur’ān, apocalypse is used for referring to the Day of Judgment. The end of the world is described mostly by as-sāa and similar words. First, in order not to cause any confusion, we will use cosmic qıyāmat for the event which will take place after the first blowing of the trumpet and which is called as-sāa by (...) Qur’ān. We will use qıyāmat/doomsday for the event which will take place after the second blowing of the trumpet. According to Qur’ān, the cosmic qıyāmat begins with the first blowing of the trumpet. Its characteristic features are, such as a violent shaking, splitting of the sky, walking of the mountains hitting each other like clouds of dust, darkening of the stars, extinction of the sun and the moon at the same time, overflowing and boiling of the seas, and transformation of the world into a plain platform where there is neither a pit nor a mound after all. On the other hand, qıyāmat/doomsday begins with the second blowing of the trumpet. Since the sky has already opened and the earth has flattened like stretched animal skin as a result of the cosmic qıyāmat, the place is ready. Then people rise from their graves. They are sent in groups to the location of reckoning. There is a court before which no one is subjected to any unfairness; and at the end, there is heaven or hell. There are depictions of apocalypse in many chapters of Qur’ān. In these depictions, it is not clear whether it is the cosmic qıyāmat or the qıyāmat/doomsday. Qur’ān usually begins with depicting cosmic qıyāmat and lasts with portraying qıyāmat/doomsday. Namely, both processes are intertwined. This fact causes confusion between the depictions of cosmic qıyāmat and the ones of reckoning day. For example, the first 5 verses of Surah al-Qāriʿah describe the cosmic qıyāmat. Al-Qāriʿah is one of the names of the cosmic qıyāmat. It is portrayed as a terrible disaster, terrible voice and heart breaking horror. At that moment, people will be thrown here and there like blades around the fire. The mountains will be like coloured wool scattered around. Then the following verse describes the positions of those whose scales are heavy or light. As seen, after a terrifying short scene of cosmic qıyāmat, the verses rapidly pass to describe qıyāmat/doomsday. This is normal considering the dynamic perspective of Qur’ān. However, some commentators have linked the depiction in the first five verses to the following verses and interpreted it as the qıyāmat/doomsday. They tried to justify this through strained interpretations. The same is also true for Surah az-Zalzalah. The first five verses of this surah depict violent quakes, shedding of the heaviness of the earth, astonishment of the human being who are crying "what is happening to this?!". It is certain that violent quakes are referring to cosmic qıyāmat. The shedding of heaviness of the earth is interpreted as earth’s turning upside down. Some commentators claim that the heaviness of the earth means "humans and jinn". They say that this verse articulates the resurrection. In this case, for a meaningful integrity, the two following verses must be replaced. The earth reveals the dead that it has hided underground through resurrection. The reckoning begins and the earth speaks. Human become surprised by this and express their astonishment by crying, "what is happening to this (earth)". However, in such an interpretation, although a meaningful integrity is created via making a replacement, it is not easy to find a place for the following verse "People leave their graves in groups" (az-Zalzalah 99/6). It is reasonable to accept that the first five verses belong to the cosmic qıyāmat and the sixth verse belongs to the Day of Judgment. Because, as from the sixth verse, like in the previous chapter, it is mentioned that people will be removed from their graves in groups. Despite the confusion we have mentioned, this surah is also interpreted as if the whole surah belonged to qıyāmat/doomsday via linking the previous verses to the next verses, similar as in the Surah al-Qāriʿah. A similar confusion also exists in the Surah of al-Infitār, al-Inshiqāq and at-Takwīr. The examples clearly revealed the intertwining between the cosmic qıyāmat and the qıyāmat/doomsday depictions in the Qur’ān.. Knowing the intricacy between the processes of apocalypse scenes in Qur’ān will be a signal for a more accurate interpretation. (shrink)

The Tafsīr al-Muqātil (d. 150/767) is the oldest available complete commentary text. In this respect, it has been a focus of attention. In this tafsīr, the references to the Battle of Badr in the explanation of some Makkī surahs are remarkably numerous. Badr was the first war that the Prophet made with the polytheists of Makkah, and it took place in the second year of the migration to Madīna (A. H. 2). The polytheists were far superior to the Muslims in (...) terms of both equipment and numbers. Therefore, the success achieved in this expedition meant a lot not only in terms of survival but also in terms of morale of Muslims. Details of this war are included in Surah Anfāl, and various aspects of it are referred to in other Madanī surahs. It is not difficult to understand the mention of such an important war in Madanī surahs. However, the references to the Battle of Badr -which has not yet taken place- in the commentary of the Makkī surahs, are particularly challenging. In this tafsīr, 66 verses of various Makkī surahs are explained through the Battle of Badr. This study was carried out in order to reveal the background of the Badr references of the Makkī surahs in Muqātil tafsīr. Muqātil stands out in the Hadith in terms of reliability, and in the Kalām as a widely discussed personality with his various views. Although he has been criticized from various aspects of his Tafsīr, it is generally considered a great authority. His work is easy to understand; it combines narration and insight. The similar of every possible verse has been given. The author's mastering at the Arabic language showed itself in the words of the Qur’ān. Almost no words remained unexplained. Muqātil is closely related to the Arabic language that had been in effect in the era of revelation, and he generally carried out his tafsīr activities by considering the era of revelation. In Muqātil's view of tafsīr, no verse is independent from the experiences of the period, and each verse gains meaning with its context. In his tafsīr, Muqātil draws a view of Badr without alternatives. While other tafsīrs include other achievements of Muslims in addition to Badr, such as the victory of the Battle of the Ditch and the conquest of Makkah, in the tafsīr of Muqātil the difference of Badr as the biggest blow against the polytheists of Makkah is clearly stated. It may not be very convincing to explain his insistence on Badr as random touches and sometimes anachronistic mistakes, given his skill in tafsīr and his command of the Qur’ān in terms of both content and language. Badr stands as a conscious choice, not a mistake in Muqātil. As it can be seen in examining the verses, the forward-looking statements present in the majority of the verses; this emphasis also prepared the ground for Muqātil's explanations. In any case, Muqātil sometimes did not care about falling into historical inconsistency. If we exclude these 5 verses, which can be explained with Badr although they are Makkī, the attitudes of other commentators regarding the emphasis of Badr in the Makkī verses in the remaining 61 verses are as follows: al-Ṭabarī (d.310/923) included the views pointing to Badr in only 3 of the 61 verses in his tafsīr. This shows us that the emphasis of Badr in the Makkī verses was not generally adopted by other early commentators except Muqātil. Because in al-Ṭabarī's tafsīr, the views on tafsīr from the era of Aṣ-ṣaḥābah (the Companions), Tābiʿūn (the second generation following the Companions) and Tābiʿū al-Tābʿīn (the third generation) are mentioned together with isnad (the chain of reporters), except for Muqātil and al-Kalbī. al-Zad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲ (d. 311/923), who was contemporary of Ṭabarī, included Badr in only two of the 61 verses in his philological tafsīr. In other words, al-Zad̲j̲d̲j̲ād̲j̲ is on a very different line from Muqātil regarding Badr. al-Māturīdī (d. 330/944) included Badr among other explanations in only 4 of the 61 verses in his tafsīr, and did not mention Muqātil's view even among the possible meanings of the other verses. al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210) included Badr in 10 of 61 verses among other explanations. In the remaining 51 verses, he did not find it necessary to mention Muqātil's view along with other possibilities. Apparently, al-Rāzī, like others, did not consider Muqātil's explanations reasonable. Nevertheless, Razi was the commentator who gave greater place to the Badr emphasis of Muqātil in his tafsīr. In this case, how can the passion for Badr, seen in the Muqātil tafsīr, be explained? We think it would be correct to seek the reasons of Muqātil's -sometimes reasonable, sometimes inappropriate, and sometimes anachronistic- explanations of Badr in the importance he gave to this expedition and in the method of relying on concrete data in the interpretation of the Qur’ānic verses. In his view of tafsīr, no verse is independent of the experiences of the period. (shrink)

The concept of distributive justice and its history are far more complex than most contemporary scholars are aware of. This introduction to the volume "New Perspectives on Distributive Justice" elucides the different meanings of the concept in the tradition of Plato and Aristotle on the one hand, and in contemporary political philosophy on the other.

Distributive justice is one of the most discussed topics in political philosophy. Focusing on the plurality of irreconcilable conceptions of social and political justice, this book presents an array of new perspectives on the topic. Bringing together 30 original essays of well-established and young international scholars, the volume is essential reading for anyone interested in social and political justice.

Focusing on the plurality of irreconcilable conceptions of social and political justice, this book presents an array of new perspectives on the topic of distributive justice. Bringing together 30 original essays of well-established and young international scholars, the volume is essential reading for anyone interested in social and political justice.

Der Beziehung zwischen Religion, sozialen Strukturen und politischen Institutionen kam in menschlichen Gesellschaften seit jeher eine fundamentale Rolle zu. Die hier versammelten Aufsätze erkunden mögliche Wege, wie die philosophischen Konzeptualisierungen von Gott, Göttern und dem Göttlichen in der antiken Welt mit traditionellen religiösen Praktiken und Institutionen interagieren, ebenso wie mit nicht-philosophischen Ansichten des Göttlichen. Dabei wird ein Bogen von der „Rationalisierung“ des Göttlichen durch die frühen griechischen Philosophen bis hin zur Konzeption der Toleranz gespannt, die sich bei Augustinus finden lässt. (...) Untersucht werden Schriften von Platon, der als Erster in der Geschichte die Worte ‚Theologie‘ und ‚Atheismus‘ prägte, und Aristoteles mit seinem intellektuell geprägten Blick auf Gott. Der Band ist besonders wertvoll für Interessenten der Geistesgeschichte, politischen Theorie, Religionsgeschichte und der klassischen Antike. Mit Beiträgen von Sylvana V. Chrysakopoulou | Francesca Eustacchi | Silvia Gastaldi | Giovanni Giorgini | Christoph Horn | Elena Irrera | Jakub Jinek | Manuel Knoll | Maria Liatsi | Francisco L. Lisi | Alberto Maffi | Maurizio Migliori | Josef Moural | Nurdane Şimşek | Bernat Torres | Denis Walter. (shrink)