Inferences that result from exhaustification of a sentence S depend on the set of alternatives to S. In this paper, we present some inference patterns that are problematic for previous theories of alternatives and propose some structural constraints on the derivation of formal alternatives which derive the observations.
Breheny et al. argue against the structural approach to alternatives. The empirical force of their argument comes mostly from challenges raised against Trinh and Haida. This paper aims to respond to these challenges, showing how they can be met by a natural refinement of Trinh and Haida’s proposal which turns out to capture additional facts previously not accounted for. Another aim of this paper is to recount the debate with enough precision and explicitness in order to enhance understanding (...) and facilitate future discussions. (shrink)
Most arguments of Applied Ethics are well analyzed. An exception is the argument 'I do not do this because it is not my duty'. It makes sense to call the argument the 'argument of supererogation' : Since J. Urmson's essay Saints and Heroes of 1958, those actions are called 'supererogations' which are not supposed to be duties. The argument is widely used not only in Applied Ethics, but also in ordinary moral everyday life. Nevertheless, there is a need of investigation (...) because it has an indecency-problem. The argument is convincing if an actor does not want to risk his life. It seems indecent, however, if an actor refuses a simple favor or a service of friendship with the 'argument of super-erogation', although they both constitute no duties. This paper reconstructs the 'argument of supererogation' as a syllogism. It analyzes its formal structure by benefitting from current Anglo-American literature on supererogation. The overall aim of this paper is to solve the problem of indecency. (shrink)
In this collection of her provocative essays on Third World art and culture, award-winning filmmaker and theorist Trinh Minh-ha offers new challenges to Western regimes of knowledge. Bringing to her subjects an acute sense of the many meanings of the marginal, Trinh examines Asian and African texts, the theories of Barthes, questions of spectatorship, the enigmas of art, and the perils of anthropology. In one essay, taking off from ideas raised earlier by Zora Neale Hurston, Trinh considers (...) with astonishment the search by Western "experts" for the hidden values of a person or culture, a process of legitimized voyeurism that, she argues, ultimately equates psychological conflicts with depth , while inner experience is reduced to mere personal feeling. When the Moon Waxes Red is an extended argument against reductive analyses, even those that appear politically adroit. Feminist struggle is heterogeneous. The multiply-hyphenated peoples of color are not simply placed in a duality between two cultural heritages; throughout, Trinh describes the predicament of having to live "a difference that has no name and too many names already." She argues for multicultural revision of knowledge so that a new politics can transform reality rather than merely ideologize it. By rewriting the always emerging, already distorted place of struggle, such work seeks to "beat the master at his own game.". (shrink)
This work contrasts Giovanni Sartor’s view of inferential semantics of legal concepts with a probabilistic model of theory formation. The work further explores possibilities of implementing Kemp’s probabilistic model of theory formation in the context of mapping legal concepts between two individual legal systems. For implementing the legal concept mapping, we propose a cross-categorization approach that combines three mathematical models: the Bayesian Model of Generalization, the probabilistic model of theory formation, i.e., the Infinite Relational Model first introduced by Kemp et (...) al. and its extended model, i.e., the normal-IRM proposed by Herlau et al.. We apply our cross-categorization approach to datasets where legal concepts related to educational systems are respectively defined by the Japanese- and the Danish authorities according to the International Standard Classification of Education. The main contribution of this work is the proposal of a conceptual framework of the cross-categorization approach that, inspired by Sartor, attempts to explain reasoner’s inferential mechanisms. (shrink)
Cet article s'attache à analyser la violente controverse qui s'est développée, sur plusieurs années, autour de la diffusion d'images de la mort d'un enfant palestinien par la deuxième chaîne française en septembre 2000. Originale de par ses publics et les vecteurs de mobilisation , cette controverse révèle une forme de débat public complexe, où l'identité sociale et professionnelle des acteurs en cause est redessinée par la circulation des représentations et des arguments.This article seeks to analyze violent controversy that has developed (...) over many years around the dissemination of images of the death of a Palestinian child by the second French channel in September 2000. Original by its audiences and vector mobilization , this controversy reveals a complex form of public debate, where social and professional identity of the actors involved is redesigned by the circulation of representations and arguments. (shrink)
Claude Piché | : Il est symptomatique que Fichte ait destiné la première version écrite de sa Doctrine de la science « à ses auditeurs », c’est-à-dire aux étudiants de l’Université d’Iéna où il venait d’entrer en fonction. En effet, Fichte a toujours cru que la lettre de l’exposé proprement scientifique de sa philosophie devait être accompagnée d’une explicitation orale, privilégiant ainsi un contact direct avec l’auditoire en vue d’éviter les malentendus. Tout au long de sa carrière, il s’est en (...) vérité résolument méfié de l’« écrit » et c’est la radicalité de cette attitude qui explique en partie le différend qui s’est fait jour entre lui et Schiller à propos de l’article sur l’« esprit et la lettre en philosophie ». Ces deux termes prennent sous la plume de Fichte une signification inattendue qui témoigne de manière privilégiée de la façon dont il envisage la philosophie transcendantale et son mode de transmission. | : It is striking to notice that Fichte intended the first written version of his Doctrine of Science “for his listeners,” namely for the students of the University of Jena where he had just taken up his post. Fichte in fact always believed that the ‘letter’ of the scientific exposition of his philosophy should be accompanied by an oral explanation, so as to establish a direct contact with his audience in order to avoid misunderstandings. Throughout his career, he was suspicious of the “written” word ; this radical attitude explains at least in part the disagreement that took place between him and Schiller concerning the article “on the spirit and the letter in philosophy.” Under Fichte’s pen, these two terms take on an unexpected meaning that illustrates, in a priviledged way, how he envisages transcendental philosophy and its mode of transmission. (shrink)
It is thrilling to think – to know that for any act of mine, I shall get twice as much praise or twice as much blame. It is quite exciting to hold the center of the national stage, with the spectators not knowing whether to laugh or to weep.
Recent studies in pedestrian simulation have been able to construct a highly realistic navigation behaviour in many circumstances. However, when replicating the close interactions between pedestrians, the replicated behaviour is often unnatural and lacks human likeness. One of the possible reasons is that the current models often ignore the cognitive factors in the human thinking process. Another reason is that many models try to approach the problem by optimising certain objectives. On the other hand, in real life, humans do not (...) always take the most optimised decisions, particularly when interacting with other people. To improve the navigation behaviour in this circumstance, we proposed a pedestrian interacting model using reinforcement learning. Additionally, a novel cognitive prediction model, inspired by the predictive system of human cognition, is also incorporated. This helps the pedestrian agent in our model to learn to interact and predict the movement in a similar practice as humans. In our experimental results, when compared to other models, the path taken by our model’s agent is not the most optimised in certain aspects like path lengths, time taken and collisions. However, our model is able to demonstrate a more natural and human-like navigation behaviour, particularly in complex interaction settings. (shrink)
This paper argues for a comprehensive conception of empathy as comprising epistemic, affective, and motivational elements and introduces the ancient Stoic theory of attachment as a model for describing the embodied, emotional response to others that we take to be distinctive of empathy. Our argument entails that in order to provide a suitable conceptual framework for the interdisciplinary study of empathy one must extend the scope of recent “simulationalist” and “enactivist” accounts of empathy in two important respects. First, against the (...) enactivist assumption that human mindreading capacities primarily rely on an immediate, quasi-perceptual understanding of other’s intentional states, we draw on Alfred Schutz’ analysis of social understanding to argue that reflective types of understanding play a distinct, but equally fundamental role in empathic engagements. Second, we insist that empathy also involves an affective response toward the other and their situation. We suggest analyzing this response in terms of the Stoic concepts of attachment, concern, and a fundamental type of prosocial motivation, that can best be described as an “extended partiality.” By way of conclusion, we integrate the above concepts into a comprehensive conceptual framework for the study of empathy and briefly relate them to current debates about empathic perception and prosocial motivation. The result, we argue, is an account that stays neutral with regard to the exact nature of the processes involved in producing empathy and can therefore accommodate discussion across theoretical divides—e.g., those between enactivist, simulationalist, and so-called theory-theorist approaches. (shrink)
Der Autor untersucht in diesem Aufsatz den Versuch von Schiller, den Gegensatz von Pflicht und Neigung, der in der Kantischen Moralphilosophie eine große Rolle spielt durch den Begriff der „schönen Seele“ zu überwinden. Auf dem Konzept der schönen Seele gründet Schiller den Gedanken der wahren Humanität. Der Autor prüft, wie der Gegensatz von Pflicht und Neigung bei Kant aussieht um dann zu untersuchen, ob sich das Programm einer Verbindung der beiden durch die „schöne Seele“ von Schiller verwirklichen lässt.Der Begriff der (...) Pflicht im Gegensatz zur Neigung bedeutet bei Kant im Gegensatz zu der Auffassung vieler Kritiker, keine formale Aufforderung eine Aufgabe zu erfüllen, gleich welchen Rang diese Aufgabe hat. Kant vertritt keinen rein funktionalen oder gar autoritären Pflichtbegriff. Pflicht ist bei Kant eine Beschreibung des moralisch Guten. Der Pflichtcharakter kommt deshalb zustande, weil das moralisch Gute aus verschiedenen Gründen, wegen sinnlichen Antrieben , nicht anerkannt oder befolgt wird. Aus diesem Grund muss auch genauer von moralischer Pflicht gesprochen werden, um die Pflicht von anderen Verbindlichkeiten abzugrenzen. Eine zweite Unterscheidung innerhalb der Kantischen Moralphilosophie ist die Unterscheidung zwischen Legalität und Moralität. Wer nach dem moralisch richtigen Handelt handelt zunächst nur legal, erst wenn das Motiv des Handelnden es auch ist sich nach dem moralischen Gesetz zu richten, dann kann man dem Menschen auch die volle Moralität zusprechen. (shrink)
L’évaluation scientifique a toujours fait partie du paysage de la recherche en sciences exactes si l’on entend par là l’existence de procédures pertinentes d’examen par les pairs – qu’il s’agisse de la soumission d’un article à une revue scientifique, du recrutement et de l’affectation thématique d’un chercheur, ou du financement de programmes de recherche nécessitant..
Der Autor untersucht in diesem Aufsatz den Versuch von Schiller, den Gegensatz von Pflicht und Neigung, der in der Kantischen Moralphilosophie eine große Rolle spielt durch den Begriff der „schönen Seele“ zu überwinden. Auf dem Konzept der schönen Seele gründet Schiller den Gedanken der wahren Humanität. Der Autor prüft, wie der Gegensatz von Pflicht und Neigung bei Kant aussieht um dann zu untersuchen, ob sich das Programm einer Verbindung der beiden durch die „schöne Seele“ von Schiller verwirklichen lässt.Der Begriff der (...) Pflicht im Gegensatz zur Neigung bedeutet bei Kant im Gegensatz zu der Auffassung vieler Kritiker, keine formale Aufforderung eine Aufgabe zu erfüllen, gleich welchen Rang diese Aufgabe hat. Kant vertritt keinen rein funktionalen oder gar autoritären Pflichtbegriff. Pflicht ist bei Kant eine Beschreibung des moralisch Guten. Der Pflichtcharakter kommt deshalb zustande, weil das moralisch Gute aus verschiedenen Gründen, wegen sinnlichen Antrieben, nicht anerkannt oder befolgt wird. Aus diesem Grund muss auch genauer von moralischer Pflicht gesprochen werden, um die Pflicht von anderen Verbindlichkeiten abzugrenzen. Eine zweite Unterscheidung innerhalb der Kantischen Moralphilosophie ist die Unterscheidung zwischen Legalität und Moralität. Wer nach dem moralisch richtigen Handelt handelt zunächst nur legal, erst wenn das Motiv des Handelnden es auch ist sich nach dem moralischen Gesetz zu richten, dann kann man dem Menschen auch die volle Moralität zusprechen. (shrink)
Physical activity is important for managing the side effects and long-term outcomes of cancer treatment, yet many adolescents and young adults diagnosed with cancer are not meeting PA guidelines. Body image and social support are two factors that can influence PA behavior and require further attention in this population. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between body image, social support, and PA among AYAs. An online cross-sectional survey administered through the Research Electronic Data Capture platform was (...) used to assess self-reported body image, social support, and PA in AYAs. Based on findings from path analyses, body image and social support were directly associated with PA. Social support was also directly associated with body image. However, there were no indirect effects. These findings provide preliminary support for the influential role of appearance and fitness body-related emotions and cancer-specific social support on PA. The results have important implications for the development of targeted strategies aimed at improving body image and social support, with the overall goal of increasing AYAs’ PA. (shrink)
Decision-Making Capacity First published Tue Jan 15, 2008; substantive revision Fri Aug 14, 2020 In many Western jurisdictions the law presumes that adult persons, and sometimes children that meet certain criteria, are capable of making their own medical decisions; for example, consenting to a particular medical treatment, or consenting to participate in a research trial. But what exactly does it mean to say that a subject has or lacks the requisite capacity to decide? This question has to do with what (...) is commonly called “decisional capacity”, a central concept in health care law and ethics, and increasingly an independent topic of philosophical inquiry. -/- Decisional capacity can be defined as the ability of subjects to make their own medical decisions. Somewhat similar questions of capacity arise in other contexts, such as capacity to stand trial in a court of law and the ability to make decisions that relate to personal care and finances. However, the history behind the more general legal notions of capacity to stand trial and capacity to manage one’s life is different and operates somewhat differently in law (Roth, Meisel, & Litz 1977; Zapf & Roesch 2005). For the purposes of this discussion the notion of decisional capacity will be limited to medical contexts only; most notably, those where decisions to consent or to refuse treatment or participation in clinical research are concerned. (shrink)
