We present a new road map for research on “How the Brain Got Language” that adopts an EvoDevoSocio perspective and highlights comparative neuroprimatology – the comparative study of brain, behavior and communication in extant monkeys and great apes – as providing a key grounding for hypotheses on the last common ancestor of humans and monkeys and chimpanzees and the processes which guided the evolution LCA-m → LCA-c → protohumans → H. sapiens. Such research constrains and is constrained by analysis of (...) the subsequent, primarily cultural, evolution of H. sapiens which yielded cultures involving the rich use of language. (shrink)

We present a new road map for research on “How the Brain Got Language” that adopts an EvoDevoSocio perspective and highlights comparative neuroprimatology – the comparative study of brain, behavior and communication in extant monkeys and great apes – as providing a key grounding for hypotheses on the last common ancestor of humans and monkeys and chimpanzees and the processes which guided the evolution LCA-m → LCA-c → protohumans → H. sapiens. Such research constrains and is constrained by analysis of (...) the subsequent, primarily cultural, evolution of H. sapiens which yielded cultures involving the rich use of language. (shrink)

In the theory of judgment aggregation, it is known for which agendas of propositions it is possible to aggregate individual judgments into collective ones in accordance with the Arrow-inspired requirements of universal domain, collective rationality, unanimity preservation, non-dictatorship and propositionwise independence. But it is only partially known (e.g., only in the monotonic case) for which agendas it is possible to respect additional requirements, notably non-oligarchy, anonymity, no individual veto power, or implication preservation. We fully characterize the agendas for which there (...) are such possibilities, thereby answering the most salient open questions about propositionwise judgment aggregation. Our results build on earlier results by Nehring and Puppe (2002), Nehring (2006), Dietrich and List (2007a) and Dokow and Holzman (2010a). (shrink)

Transcendental Pragmatics and Discourse Ethics. Elements and Perspectives of Apel's Discourse-Philosophy. The author follows Apel's intellectual biography and shows the conception of a critique of meaning qua ‘reflection upon the discourse within the discourse’ to be the centre of Apel's language-pragmatic ‘Transformation of Philosophy’. Beginning with an explication of the situation of a speaker/thinker, especially of the situation of a philosophising speaker/thinker, Apel reconstructs a two fold apriori of communication: Every thought is situated within the context of a particular, historically (...) evolved, community of language and interaction. At the same time, however, the validity-claims of thoughts transcend the context of their origin towards an unlimited community of argumentation. On the basis of the first apriori Apel criticises the methodical solipsism as well as the objectivism of modern philosophy and theory of science. Drawing upon the second apriori he develops a universalist critique of meaning of relativism and contextualism. In the sixties and seventies Apel worked out a differentiated theory of the – more or less – communicatively cognizing humanities and set it apart from the theory of the causal-explanatory natural sciences, thus challenging the objectivism of a Theory of Unified Science. Building upon this work Transcendental Pragmatics, as developed by Apel and others, sets philosophy primarily two tasks: firstly, a internal reconstruction of argumentative discourse as the situation of speech and thought which seeks to elucidate the conditions of the meaningfulness, i. e. the presuppositions, of discourse. These presuppositions comprise, thus Apel with Habermas, the four validity-claims to intelligibility, sincerety/credibility, truth and normative rightness/legitimacy. Their moral content consists, thus Apel, not only in the recognition of the equality of all beings capable of discursive reasoning but also in their recognition of a co-responsibility for the realizability of discourses and of responsibility. The author argues that the existence of a co-responsibility of this kind is indisputable because the discursive claims to validity are intertwined with a set of ‘primordial promises of dialogue’. Only with the elucidation and explication of these promises can the reconstruction of the internal conditions of discourse be completed.The second task of a pragmatics of argumentation isthe strict resp. actual reflection of the thinker upon the presuppositions of the discourse in which he currently engages. This reflection has a Socratic character and can only be done in the form of discussion and debate with critics of the reconstruction. In this context, the author proposes a method of Socratic reflection upon the presuppositions of dialogue which suspends the usual, theoretically oriented, attitude of the scientist and the philosopher in favour of an actual reflective attitude. Within a dialogue with a sceptic who doubts one of the results of the internal reconstruction of dialogical presuppositions, say X, it is tested whether his doubt as to the unrestricted validity of X can be understood as a sincere contribution to the current dialogue or whether this particular sceptical thesis does not make sense, because it is incompatible with the role of a sincere participant of argumentation which, after all, the sceptic cannot refuse to claim for himself.Finally the author explains Apel's characterization of the tension between “Discourse and Responsibility”. In the course of discussions with Max Weber, Lawrence Kohlberg, Hans Jonas et al., Apel formulates and justifies an ethics of responsibility and gives an affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether the fulfilment of the moral obligations connected with the recognition of co-responsibility can be demanded within the non-dialogical circumstances of social reality. Apel's answer employs the idea of counter-strategies which are morally legitimate in virtue of their being worthy of argumentative consensus. (shrink)

In der 1968 gegründeten Reihe erscheinen Monographien aus den Gebieten der Griechischen und Lateinischen Philologie sowie der Alten Geschichte. Die Bände weisen eine große Vielzahl von Themen auf: neben sprachlichen, textkritischen oder gattungsgeschichtlichen philologischen Untersuchungen stehen sozial-, politik-, finanz- und kulturgeschichtliche Arbeiten aus der Klassischen Antike und der Spätantike. Entscheidend für die Aufnahme ist die Qualität einer Arbeit; besonderen Wert legen die Herausgeber auf eine umfassende Heranziehung der einschlägigen Texte und Quellen und deren sorgfältige kritische Auswertung.

Name der Zeitschrift: Frühmittelalterliche Studien Jahrgang: 49 Heft: 1 Seiten: 1-20.

Name der Zeitschrift: Frühmittelalterliche Studien Jahrgang: 52 Heft: 1 Seiten: 81-97.

Suppose several individuals (e.g., experts on a panel) each assign probabilities to some events. How can these individual probability assignments be aggregated into a single collective probability assignment? This article reviews several proposed solutions to this problem. We focus on three salient proposals: linear pooling (the weighted or unweighted linear averaging of probabilities), geometric pooling (the weighted or unweighted geometric averaging of probabilities), and multiplicative pooling (where probabilities are multiplied rather than averaged). We present axiomatic characterisations of each class of (...) pooling functions (most of them classic, but one new) and argue that linear pooling can be justified procedurally, but not epistemically, while the other two pooling methods can be justified epistemically. The choice between them, in turn, depends on whether the individuals' probability assignments are based on shared information or on private information. We conclude by mentioning a number of other pooling methods. (shrink)

The new field of judgment aggregation aims to merge many individual sets of judgments on logically interconnected propositions into a single collective set of judgments on these propositions. Judgment aggregation has commonly been studied using classical propositional logic, with a limited expressive power and a problematic representation of conditional statements ("if P then Q") as material conditionals. In this methodological paper, I present a simple unified model of judgment aggregation in general logics. I show how many realistic decision problems can (...) be represented in it. This includes decision problems expressed in languages of classical propositional logic, predicate logic (e.g. preference aggregation problems), modal or conditional logics, and some multi-valued or fuzzy logics. I provide a list of simple tools for working with general logics, and I prove impossibility results that generalise earlier theorems. (shrink)

Many biologists appeal to the so-called Krogh principle when justifying their choice of experimental organisms. The principle states that “for a large number of problems there will be some animal of choice, or a few such animals, on which it can be most conveniently studied”. Despite its popularity, the principle is often critiqued for implying unwarranted generalizations from optimal models. We argue that the Krogh principle should be interpreted in relation to the historical and scientific contexts in which it has (...) been developed and used. We interpret the Krogh Principle as a heuristic, i.e., as a recommendation to approach biological problems through organisms where a specific trait or physiological mechanism is expected to be most distinctively displayed or most experimentally accessible. We designate these organisms “Krogh organisms.” We clarify the differences between uses of model organisms and non-standard Krogh organisms. Among these is the use of Krogh organisms as “negative models” in biomedical research, where organisms are chosen for their dissimilarity to human physiology. Importantly, the representational scope of Krogh organisms and the generalizability of their characteristics are not fixed or assumed but explored through experimental studies. Research on Krogh organisms is steeped in the comparative method characteristic of zoology and comparative physiology, in which studies of biological variation produce insights into general physiological constraints. Accordingly, we conclude that the Krogh principle exemplifies the advantages of studying biological variation as a strategy to produce generalizable insights. (shrink)

Advocates of dynamic systems have suggested that higher mental processes are based on continuous representations. In order to evaluate this claim, we first define the concept of representation, and rigorously distinguish between discrete representations and continuous representations. We also explore two important bases of representational content. Then, we present seven arguments that discrete representations are necessary for any system that must discriminate between two or more states. It follows that higher mental processes require discrete representations. We also argue that discrete (...) representations are more influenced by conceptual role than continuous representations. We end by arguing that the presence of discrete representations in cognitive systems entails that computationalism (i.e., the view that the mind is a computational device) is true, and that cognitive science should embrace representational pluralism. (shrink)

Several recent results on the aggregation of judgments over logically connected propositions show that, under certain conditions, dictatorships are the only propositionwise aggregation functions generating fully rational (i.e., complete and consistent) collective judgments. A frequently mentioned route to avoid dictatorships is to allow incomplete collective judgments. We show that this route does not lead very far: we obtain oligarchies rather than dictatorships if instead of full rationality we merely require that collective judgments be deductively closed, arguably a minimal condition of (...) rationality, compatible even with empty judgment sets. We derive several characterizations of oligarchies and provide illustrative applications to Arrowian preference aggregation and Kasher and Rubinsteinís group identification problem. (shrink)

A group is often construed as one agent with its own probabilistic beliefs (credences), which are obtained by aggregating those of the individuals, for instance through averaging. In their celebrated “Groupthink”, Russell et al. (2015) require group credences to undergo Bayesian revision whenever new information is learnt, i.e., whenever individual credences undergo Bayesian revision based on this information. To obtain a fully Bayesian group, one should often extend this requirement to non-public or even private information (learnt by not all or (...) just one individual), or to non-representable information (not representable by any event in the domain where credences are held). I pro- pose a taxonomy of six types of ‘group Bayesianism’. They differ in the information for which Bayesian revision of group credences is required: public representable information, private representable information, public non-representable information, etc. Six corre- sponding theorems establish how individual credences must (not) be aggregated to ensure group Bayesianism of any type, respectively. Aggregating through standard averaging is never permitted; instead, different forms of geometric averaging must be used. One theorem—that for public representable information—is essentially Russell et al.’s central result (with minor corrections). Another theorem—that for public non-representable information—fills a gap in the theory of externally Bayesian opinion pooling. (shrink)

The secession of prosperous regions may negatively affect the redistributive scheme of an established state. As a consequence, the capacity of its welfare system to support the inhabitants of poorer regions may be significantly reduced. Some authors assert that affluent groups who opt for full political independence violate duties of solidarity. This objection to the secession of prosperous regions can be based on different views of distributive justice. Here, following a distinction that has been introduced by Allen Buchanan, ‘subject centred’ (...) and ‘justice as reciprocity’ theories are explored. It is argued that both theories fail to support the case against the secession of wealthy groups. ‘Subject centred’ theories cannot explain special duties toward compatriots, whereas ‘justice as reciprocity’ theories cannot justify restrictions on exit rights. However, this does not mean that separatists have no moral duties vis-à-vis their fellow citizens. They are obliged to dissolve the political union in a fair way, e.g., by accepting responsibility for some share of the public debts. (shrink)

O objetivo central deste trabalho é explorar criticamente o tema proposto para o Encontro Regional da Residência Pedagógica em Filosofia, realizado na UFSM, a saber, “que lugar é este, o da filosofia?”. Mais especificamente, esta exploração crítica toma como impulso inicial uma inflexão na formulação deste questionamento que desloca a pergunta (e o perguntar) para a posição de destaque e como o lugar da filosofia. Desde um ponto de vista histórico, a perspectiva aqui adotada aproxima-se da famosa perspectiva de Kant (...) segundo a qual não se ensina filosofia, mas sim a filosofar. Esta aproximação permite qualificar o mote de Kant ao incluir em seu interior a pergunta enquanto tal, o que pode ser apresentado em termos condicionais do seguinte modo: se não se ensina filosofia, mas filosofar, e se a pergunta enquanto tal é central para filosofar, então a pergunta é central para ensinar a filosofar. Adicionalmente, esta qualificação é metodologicamente relevante, pois permite trazer à tona um conjunto de reflexões sobre o papel que o texto possui em sala de aula, de que modo pode ser utilizado, visando quais fins e etc. Nossa hipótese interpretativa, inspirada na fenomenologia-hermenêutica de Heidegger de Ser e Tempo, e, sobretudo, na hermenêutica filosófica de Gadamer de Verdade e Método, é a de que os verbos “refletir”, “pensar”, “filosofar” e “perguntar” estão intima e organicamente articulados, e que conceder papel de destaque para o ato de perguntar e para a pergunta enquanto tal abre importantes linhas de reflexão sobre o processo de ensino-aprendizagem em filosofia. (shrink)

É crescente e plural o interesse filosófico em relação à dimensão afetiva da vida e da experiência humana. Dentre estes interesses destacam-se os recentes e variados esforços em compreender a natureza das emoções, especialmente em sua relação com diversas questões filosóficas envolvendo a agência humana. Na linha destes esforços soma-se a proposta de Goldie que consiste em um duplo movimento de, por um lado, apresentar um amplo e variado conjunto de fenômenos que precisam ser apreciados por quaisquer teorias da emoção, (...) e, por outro, identificar em que medida as teorias da emoção mais prestigiadas fazem justiça àquela riqueza e complexidade fenomênica. O resultado deste duplo movimento é o diagnóstico crítico de que as teorias da emoção até então mais prestigiadas, a não-cognitivista, a cognitivista e a perceptual são deficitárias desde o ponto de vista explicativo. Curiosamente, apesar de ter reservado uma posição e função decisivas para a afetividade em meio ao projeto de elaboração da ontologia fundamental, o nome de Martin Heidegger não consta nas atas de boa parte dos atuais debates das filosofias da emoção, inclusive no já mencionado diagnóstico crítico de Goldie. O objetivo central deste trabalho consiste em apresentar em linhas gerais a fenomenologia da afetividade conforme desdobrada por Heidegger ao final da década de vinte. Mais especificamente, procura-se mostrar de que maneira a dimensão afetiva em geral, e o humor e as emoções em particular, possuem um caráter de abertura eminentemente revelador, o que inclusive justifica, desde uma perspectiva meta-filosófica, a sua inclusão junto ao programa da ontologia fundamental. (shrink)

Algo que impacta o meio ambiente impacta a todos. O desmatamento da Amazônia, um problema atual que afeta e destrói os ecossistemas e consequentemente ameaça à humanidade, cresceu drasticamente nos últimos anos. Esta pesquisa analisa os motivos e as consequências do crescimento do desmatamento da Amazônia. Aborda as estruturas e articulações brasileiras e internacionais e a posição e a contribuição da Igreja Católica, a partir da espiritualidade cristã, propondo uma ecologia integral, do cuidado da “Casa Comum”. Baseada em pesquisa bibliográfica (...) e exploratória sobre o desmatamento da Amazônia, primeiramente busca identificar os motivos do crescimento e as consequências das derrubadas e queimadas na Amazônia para depois avaliar as decisões tomadas em âmbito nacional e internacional, para diminuir o desmatamento ou neutralizar os seus efeitos. Por fim, considerar-se-ão a importância dos apelos e a seriedade dos compromissos, acordos e metas e os caminhos apontados para a proteção das florestas; em especial o posicionamento do Papa Francisco para a preservação da Amazônia e da vida no planeta. Os “gritos da terra” desafiam o cristianismo a contribuir para o desenvolvimento e a sustentabilidade ecológica integral e oportunizam o resgate de espiritualidades mais coerentes com o Deus da Vida. (shrink)

Da metade do século passado em diante, a filosofia da matemática passou por uma importante inflexão que conduziu gradativamente suas linhas de pensamento para o centro das práticas matemáticas. Genericamente, este movimento ficou conhecido na literatura especializada como o giro prático, do qual resultaram diversas expressões de filosofias da matemática prático-orientadas. Dentre estas, consta a de José Ferreirós, que conforme apresentada em The Mathematical Knowledge and the Interplay of Practices (2016), tem como eixo reflexivo e analítico o duplo esquema composto (...) pelos agentes que performam ou fazem matemática e os frameworks em que tais práticas configuram-se. O objetivo central deste trabalho é apresentar em linhas gerais a filosofia da matemática prático-orientada e agente-centrada de Ferreirós. Mais especificamente, com esta apresentação também é visada uma aproximação algo surpreendente com conceitos centrais da analítica da existência de Ser e Tempo (1927), especialmente com o conceito de ser-no-mundo e com o conceito existencial de ciência. A hipótese interpretativa adotada neste trabalho é a de as perspectivas de Heidegger e Ferreirós não são inconsistentes, e que a articulação de uma filosofia da matemática prático-orientada e agente-centrada com o conceito existencial de ciência pode ser mutuamente elucidativa. Palavras-chave: ser-no-mundo. Heidegger. Ferreirós. Filosofia da Matemática. (shrink)

Tough anti-terrorism policies are often defended by focusing on a fixed minority of the population who prefer violent outcomes, and arguing that toughness reduces the risk of terrorism from this group. This reasoning implicitly assumes that tough policies do not increase the group of 'potential terrorists', i.e., of people with violent preferences. Preferences and their level of violence are treated as stable, exogenously fixed features. To avoid this unrealis- tic assumption, I formulate a model in which policies can 'brutalise' or (...) 'appease' someone's personality, i.e., his preferences. This follows the endogenous prefer- ences approach, popular elsewhere in political science and economics. I formally decompose the effect of toughness into a (desirable) deterrence effect and an (un- desirable) provocation effect. Whether toughness is overall effi cient depends on which effect overweighs. I show that neglecting provocation typically leads to toughness exaggeration. This suggests that some tough anti-terrorism policies observable in the present and past can be explained by a neglect of provocation. (shrink)

Judgment-aggregation theory has always focused on the attainment of rational collective judgments. But so far, rationality has been understood in static terms: as coherence of judgments at a given time, defined as consistency, completeness, and/or deductive closure. This paper asks whether collective judgments can be dynamically rational, so that they change rationally in response to new information. Formally, a judgment aggregation rule is dynamically rational with respect to a given revision operator if, whenever all individuals revise their judgments in light (...) of some information (a learnt proposition), then the new aggregate judgments are the old ones revised in light of this information, i.e., aggregation and revision commute. We prove an impossibility theorem: if the propositions on the agenda are non-trivially connected, no judgment aggregation rule with standard properties is dynamically rational with respect to any revision operator satisfying some basic conditions on revision. Our theorem is the dynamic-rationality counterpart of some well-known impossibility theorems for static rationality. We also explore how dynamic rationality might be achieved by relaxing some of the conditions on the aggregation rule and/or the revision operator. Notably, premise-based aggregation rules are dynamically rational with respect to so-called premise-based revision operators. (shrink)

The article addresses the issue of rationing health care services, a topic currently being hotly debated in many countries. The author argues that the aspect of causal responsibility ought to play a decisive role in the allocation of limited medical resources. Starting out from Ronald Dworkin's distinction between option luck and brute luck, the appropriate and meaningful uses of the term causal responsibility are clarified first. A discussion of the conditions which might justify giving lower priority to patients whose illnesses (...) are the result of unhealthy behavior, like e.g. alcohol abuse, follows. Causal responsibility is then viewed in the context of private health insurance and the club model of organ donation. It is argued that individuals themselves are basically responsible for their decisions regarding insurance coverage and membership in organ donors' clubs. Causal responsibility is shown to be a more suitable criterion for rationing scarce medical resources than other criteria which might alternatively be considered, such as patients' age. (shrink)

Does pre-voting group deliberation increase majority competence? To address this question, we develop a probabilistic model of opinion formation and deliberation. Two new jury theorems, one pre-deliberation and one post-deliberation, suggest that deliberation is beneficial. Successful deliberation mitigates three voting failures: (1) overcounting widespread evidence, (2) neglecting evidential inequality, and (3) neglecting evidential complementarity. Formal results and simulations confirm this. But we identify four systematic exceptions where deliberation reduces majority competence, always by increasing Failure 1. Our analysis recommends deliberation that (...) is 'participatory', 'neutral', but not necessarily 'equal', i.e., that involves substantive sharing, privileges no evidences, but might privilege some persons. (shrink)

In a single framework, I address the question of the informational basis for evaluating social states. I particularly focus on information about individual welfare, individual preferences and individual (moral) judgments, but the model is also open to any other informational input deemed relevant, e.g. sources of welfare and motivations behind preferences. In addition to proving some possibility and impossibility results, I discuss objections against using information about only one aspect (e.g. using only preference information). These objections suggest a multi-aspect informational (...) basis for aggregation. However, the multi-aspect approach faces an impossibility result created by a lack of inter-aspect comparability. The impossibility could be overcome by measuring information on non-cardinal scales. (shrink)

Das Ergebnis unserer kurzen Untersuchung, die sich noch viel weiter ausdehnen ließe, ist folgendes: Die Lehre von der Seelenwanderung im Islam hängt aufs engste zusammen mit dem S e k t e n t y p u s : der Steigerung des Persönlichkeits- und Individualitätstriebes, wie sie sich einerseits in der Apotheose des verborgenen Imäm, andererseits in der Dramatisierung des Schicksals der menschlichen Seele kundtut. Die alten Religionen und Kulturen auf dem synkretistischen Boden Vorderasiens haben dazu ebenso das Material geliefert (...) wie der Ferne Osten, vornehmlich Indien, nicht zuletzt aber hat zu ihrer Ausbildung auch manche bedeutende Persönlichkeit der islamischen Theologie und das fromme Volksgemüt beigetragen in seiner Art, transzendente Zusammenhänge durch Glauben an die Wiederkehr des verehrten Heiligen zu erfassen, und so daran mitgewirkt, eine ursprünglich politische Sezession in eine religiöse zu verwandeln. Der Seelenwanderungsglaube gewährt seinen Anhängern eine wichtige Möglichkeit zur Deutung von Schuld und Sühne, der Theodizee und der Tatsache der Verschiedenheit der Religionen ; er vertieft das Gemeinschaftsgefühl durch die Theorie der seelischen Verwandtschaft und des Seelenaustauschs zwischen sich nahe-stehenden Personen, und er erklärt, wie ein Heiliger vergottet werden kann. Seine Rolle im Islam mag abseitig sein, aber sie ist nicht unerheblich. (shrink)

Die Kritik der Rabbinen an Gott erweist sich keineswegs als eine Schwächung der Glaubenskraft oder gar als verhüllter Atheismus; sie weist zwar dadurch, daß sie nur bei Einzelnen auftritt und nicht eigentlich die Stimme der Gemeinde, d. h. einen sensus communis, darstellt, auf die Tatsache hin, daß es Richtungen, Spaltungen, Häresien im Rabbinismus gegeben hat - eine Tatsache, die uns auch ohnedies schon bekannt ist. Das Bemerkenswerte jedoch daran ist, daß die kritischen Elemente ertragen worden sind und das Judentum der (...) Kritik in seiner eignen Mitte standgehalten hat: die jüdische Gemeinde ist daran nicht zugrunde gegangen, ihr Glaube war stark genug, auch damit fertig zu werden. Ferner darf man diese Kritik an der Gottheit, sogar als einen Erweis lebendigen Umgangs mit ihr betrachten: Gott ist gleichsam auch der Gefährte des Menschen, nicht nur der Herr, und diese Einstellung des Rabbinismus mag als ein fast notwendiges Supplement - oder wenn man will, ein Korrelat - zur Vorstellung von der Überweltlichkeit Gottes und von seinem Getrenntsein von der Welt, wie sie sonst das Judentum bestimmt, angesehen werden. Gott als der Gefährte des Menschen begegnet uns ja auch gelegentlich im Neuen Testament: er bedarf, obschon der "Herr der Ernte", der Erntearbeiter Mt. 9,38, d. h. aber der Gehilfen; noch deutlicher bringt dies der paulinische Terminus Mitarbeiter Gottes, I. Cor. 3,9 u. ö., zum Ausdruck. Die Kritik an Gott ist gleichzeitig eine Krit i k a m Menschen. Sie betrifft ja den Schöpfer, dessen Werk in der Erschaffung des Menschen gipfele32). Jüdische Kreise, die die Schöpfung abwerten, nehmen am Geist der Zeit teil. Auch bewirken gnostische Ideen durch die Aufstellung von Mittlerwesen eine Entfernung der Gottheit von der Welt: er nimmt nicht mehr unmittelbar an ihr teil. Gottes Macht wird beschränkt durch die Hypostasierung seiner Eigenschaften. Der Anthropomorphismus, von einem Teil der Schriftgelehrten zu beheben oder zu mildern versucht, wird bei anderen umso stärker, und sie drücken darin ihren Hader mit Gott aus: er ist trotzig gegen die Bitten der Gemeinde, er verwechselt Namen und ist vergeßlich, ja er entzieht sich seinem eignen Gesetz oder den ethischen Verpflichtungen, die er selbst geboten hat. Aber wiederum, von der anderen Seite gesehen: Gott leidet mit seinem Volk, er ist ohnmächtig, demütig, weint und klagt, trauert um Stadt und Tempel, ist erlösungsbedürftig und ringt mit sich selbst um sein Erbarmen. Man könnte dies die positive Seite der rabbinischen Kritik an Gott nennen. Auf zwei große Motive läßt sich diese Kritik zurückführen : auf eine Fortführung des alttestamentlichen Dispute zwischen Gott und Menschen, wobei gleichzeitig eine Veränderung der biblischen Gottesvorstellung nach der spekulativen Seite hin erfolgt - und auf das Interesse a n der Entlastung der bedrängten Gemeinde. Es sind Motive, die in der Weiterentwicklung des Judentums unvermeidlich waren. Auch andere große Religionen haben unter dem Druck solcher Anfechtungen gestanden. Auch dem Islam und dem Christentum ist solche Kritik nicht fremd geblieben. Was den Islam betrifft, so ist Verfasser durch einen Vortrag von Hellmut Ritter im Orient-Institut Frankfurt/Main über "die Kritik an Gott bei den persischen Mystikem"33) zu vorliegender Untersuchung angeregt wor den. Wenn auch die Erscheinungswelt der islamischen, zumal der persischen Mystik von derjenigen der Rabbinen so verschieden ist wie nur möglich, da es sich dort meist um Extravaganzen des Typus des "närrischen Heiligen" handelt, der die Freiheit hat, auch die radikalsten Gedanken über die Gottheit zu äußern, ohne daß er sein praktisches Verhalten der Ergebung in Gott ändert, so haben doch b e i d e Welten das eine gemeinsam, daß es die Not ist, die hier ein entscheidendes Wort mitspricht. Im Christentum ist die Kritik an Gott lediglich verhüllter dank der Idee der Menschwerdung Gottes und der ins Dogma eingebauten Theorie vom Mittler; aber sie ist nichtsdestoweniger vorhanden und bricht in Zeiten der Krisis hervor. Schon die Theodizee, die positive Seite der Kritik an Gott, setzt voraus, daß der Mensch nicht um eine Recht-fertigung Gottes herumkommt; das aber hat wieder zur Voraussetzung, daß der Mensch Gott Vorwürfe macht. So tut es z. B. LUTHER, der "in seinen seelischen Kämpfen Gott besonders Härte und Ungerechtigkeit vorgeworfen hat"34). Diese Kritik ist zuletzt notwendige Begleiterscheinung jedes ernsthaften, sich um sich selber mühenden, nicht scholastisch erstickten Glaubens. Auch über die Kritik der Rabbinen an Gott kann schließlich kein anderes Urteil gefällt werden, als daß sie die dialektische Überwindung der Negation mittels ihrer ehrlichen Durchschreitung darstellt. (shrink)

Zusammenfassung: Das Internet bietet die Möglichkeit, eine beliebig große Anzahl von Personen durch unterschiedliche Formen der Deliberation und Beschlussfassung politisch einzubinden. Insbesondere im kommunalen Kontext wird die Online-Partizipation – etwa im Rahmen städtischer Bürgerhaushalte – bereits vielfach als Mittel erprobt, um die soziale Akzeptanz und Legitimität politischer Entscheidungen zu erhöhen. Die Legitimität demokratischer Verfahren hängt neben anderen Faktoren maßgeblich von der Konstitution des Demos und der damit festgelegten Allokation der Teilnahmerechte ab. In historischer Perspektive hat vor allem die Exklusion bestimmter (...) Gruppen, insbesondere von Frauen, Besitzlosen oder nichtweißen Personen, die Legitimität klassischer Offline-Verfahren, wie z. B. Parlamentswahlen, in Frage gestellt. Die neuen Formen der Online-Partizipation bergen hingegen – so die zentrale These des Aufsatzes – die Gefahr der Über-Inklusivität, weil sie häufig auf jegliche Zugangsbeschränkung verzichten. Selbst wenn die Verfahren, wie in der Praxis üblich, einen konsultativen Charakter haben und die politischen Entscheidungsträger formal nicht binden, führt ihre Offenheit zu Legitimationsproblemen. Daraus entsteht die Notwendigkeit, normative Kriterien für die Vergabe von Partizipationsrechten zu entwickeln, die den Besonderheiten der Online-Deliberation angemessen Rechnung tragen. (shrink)

In recent years theorists, such as Yael Tamir and David Miller, have proposed a liberal form of nationalism thereby combining two seemingly incompatible traditions of thought. Perhaps the most controversial element of their theories is the claim that national communities should be accorded with a right to political self-determination. In the article it is explained, firstly, why membership in a nation is seen as important for the individual’s well-being and, secondly, why statehood is deemed necessary for the thriving of the (...) nation. Subsequently, two problems of the liberal nationalists’ argument for political self-determination are discussed. It is argued, firstly, that national communities only need some form of regional autonomy to achieve their most important goals and, secondly, that non-national communities, e.g. religious groups, can base their demand for political sovereignity on the very same argument. (shrink)

Von Hildebrand, D. Das Wesen der Hierarchie.--Hengstenberg, H.-E. Gegenwärtigkeit.--Deku, H. De nihilo.--Hamburger, S. J. Das Phänomen der Patina.--Marra, W. A. A minimum epistomology.--Crosby, J. F. Refutation of skepticism and general relativism.--Wenisch, F. Versuch einer Rechtfertigung der Philosophie.--Chervin, R. The Christian phenomenologist as teacher of contemporary youth.--Von Hildebrand, A. Near-sightedness of keen thinkers.--Miceli, V. Heidegger and Bultmann.--Seifert, J. Friedrich Nietzsches Verzweiflung an der Wahrheit und sein Kampf gegen die Wahrheit.--Heyne, M. W. Wesen und Wirklung einiger in der Abtreibungsdiskussion verwendeter Schlagworte.--Schwarz, S. (...) D. Spontaneous freedom.--Teichert, F.--The essence of virtue, as found in the writings of Dietrich von Hildebrand. (shrink)

Advancements in biological ageing research have shown that age-related diseases may be fought more effectively in the future by directly intervening into the ageing process. This prospect is associated with hopes for solving problems of demographic change. It also addresses raising awareness for complex ethical, legal and social issues that have hardly been a topic of discussion to date. Therefore, as the objective of our project, an interdisciplinary discourse module entitled “Ethics of Biogerontology” was developed to initiate a social debate (...) on the ethical, legal, and societal implications of biogerontology. The discourse module focuses on competences and argumentation skills and was developed with experts from relevant disciplines, e.g. biogerontology, social gerontology, philosophy, geriatrics, and medical ethics. Concepts of age and ageing are tightly interlinked with biogerontology and are as such relevant as teaching contents of the discourse module. The course module was tested in eight discourse teaching projects in research, medicine, and education in various partner institutions and evaluated based on an ethical competence model. This article describes the conception, including the learning objectives, of such a teaching course and the associated teaching contents. It also gives a justification for their selection. Finally, we summarize the results of the evaluation. (shrink)

Although Christianity has abundant literature against racism, the menace negatively affects human relationships in contemporary westernised societies. The near silence of most Christian denominations leads to one crucial question: how should Christians deal with racial prejudice in contemporary westernised societies? This article is a social criticism of racism from the perspective of Dietrich Bonhoeffer. As a Christian, Bonhoeffer struggled with the morality of racism, particularly regarding the experience of black people in the United States and Jews in Germany. His (...) reflections and action against racial injustice are a robust framework that could inspire a positive Christian attitude in dealing with racism. This article describes the causes and remedies of racial injustice from his perspective. The central argument is that faithfulness to the communal social character is a significant way to deal with racism in contemporary westernised societies.Contribution: Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s reflections and actions against racial injustice are a robust framework for dealing with racism. The central argument is that faithfulness to the communal social character is a significant way Christians can deal with racism in contemporary westernised societies. (shrink)