Abstract

Much of the scholarship on Kant's ethics in recent years has been an effort to debunk the view of Kant as a stuffy, overly demanding moralist with an unrealistic view of human psychology and the limits of human virtue. Although this strategy has produced some excellent commentary, I argue that the strategy has been carried too far when applied to "humanity as an end in itself" formulation of the Categorical Imperative. Commentators have taken great pains to emphasize that this "humanity," which must be treated as an end in itself, is some trait that every minimally rational human being necessarily possesses . ;Against these minimal readings of "humanity," I argue that the main ideas of Kant's ethics, as well as particular textual passages, dictate that we must take humanity to be equivalent to a good will, a commitment to do what duty requires no matter the cost to oneself. And, contrary to first appearances, this reading does not make Kant's ethics implausible or morally repugnant. This is both because a good will, properly understood, is not so rare among humans, and because there are reasons to treat most humans with respect and concern, even if they do not fully earn this treatment by possessing a good will. ;Having argued for reading "humanity" as "good will," I bring this reading to bear on three controversies involving the humanity formulation. The first is that a satisfactory argument for, or "derivation" of, the humanity formulation has long been elusive. The second problem is a challenge posed recently, that Kant's ethics is best seen as consequentialist, because Kant's notion of the special value of humanity leads inevitably to consequentialist normative principles. Finally, I argue against a charge made by defenders of animal rights, that it is arbitrary to exclude non-rational beings from the same full moral consideration that rational beings deserve. By showing that my good will reading is helpful in resolving these three controversial issues, I show that my reading is fruitful as well as textually justified