Hyperalgesia can arise from peripheral sensitization, on-going peripheral activation, and central plasticity. In the target article, coderre & katz argue that all three mechanisms contribute to hyperalgesia. In contrast, we believe that existing experimental evidence suggests that central plasticity plays only an insignificant role in most experimental models and clinical presentations of hyperalgesia induced by tissue injury or chemical activation of sensory receptors.

The specification of specific and often unique fates to individual cells as a function of their position within a developing organism is a fundamental process during the development of multicellular organisms. The development of the Drosophila embryonic central nervous system serves as an excellent model system in which to clarify the developmental mechanisms that link pattern formation to cell-type specification. The Drosophila embryonic central nervous system develops from a set of neural stem cells (...) termed neuroblasts. Neuroblasts arise from the ectoderm in an invariant pattern, and each neuroblast acquires a unique fate based on its position within this pattern. Two groups of genes recently have been demonstrated to govern the individual fate specification of neuroblasts. One group, the segment polarity genes, enables neuroblasts that develop in different anteroposterior positions to acquire different fates. The second group, referred to as the columnar genes, ensures that neuroblasts that develop in different dorsoventral domains assume different fates. When integrated, the activities of the segment polarity and columnar genes create a Cartesian coordinate system that bestows unique fates to individual neuroblasts as a function of their position of formation within the ectoderm. BioEssays 1999;21:922–931. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (shrink)

Central nervous system (CNS)Abbreviations: CNS=central nervous system; PNS=peripheral nervous system; MS=multiple sclerosis; MBP=myelin basic protein; MHC=major histocompatibility complex; EAE=experimental allergic encephalomyelitis; O‐2A=oligodendrocyte‐type 2 astrocyte; GC=galactocerebroside; GFAP=glial fibrillary acidic protein; FGF=fibroblast growth factor; IGF1=insulin‐like growth factor. regeneration is a subject of great interest, particularly in diseases causing a dramatic loss of neurons. However, some CNS diseases do not affect neurons but damage other cells, such as the myelin‐forming cells — called oligodendrocytes — which (...) are also crucial to the harmonious function of the nervous system. Diseases in which oligodendrocytes and myelin are attacked can cause devastating neurological dysfunction which is sometimes followed by recovery and myelin repair or remyelination. The question of the regeneration potential of oligodendrocytes in experimental and human demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis has been debated for a long time. Present evidence suggests that oligodendrocyte precursor cells persist in the adult CNS and that oligodendrocyte regeneration can occur but may be limited by ongoing disease processes. Here we will briefly review recent advances which have broadened our understanding of the cellular and molecular events of CNS remyelination. (shrink)

The specification of specific and often unique fates to individual cells as a function of their position within a developing organism is a fundamental process during the development of multicellular organisms. The development of the Drosophila embryonic central nervous system serves as an excellent model system in which to clarify the developmental mechanisms that link pattern formation to cell-type specification. The Drosophila embryonic central nervous system develops from a set of neural stem cells (...) termed neuroblasts. Neuroblasts arise from the ectoderm in an invariant pattern, and each neuroblast acquires a unique fate based on its position within this pattern. Two groups of genes recently have been demonstrated to govern the individual fate specification of neuroblasts. One group, the segment polarity genes, enables neuroblasts that develop in different anteroposterior positions to acquire different fates. The second group, referred to as the columnar genes, ensures that neuroblasts that develop in different dorsoventral domains assume different fates. When integrated, the activities of the segment polarity and columnar genes create a Cartesian coordinate system that bestows unique fates to individual neuroblasts as a function of their position of formation within the ectoderm. BioEssays 1999;21:922–931. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (shrink)

Recent studies have found abnormal levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in a variety of central nervous system diseases. This suggests that BDNF may be involved in the pathogenesis of these diseases. Moreover, regulating BDNF signaling may represent a potential treatment for such diseases. With reference to recent research papers in related fields, this article reviews the production and regulation of BDNF in CNS and the role of BDNF signaling disorders in these diseases. A brief introduction of the (...) clinical application status of BDNF is also provided. (shrink)

Neuro-technical interfaces are technical devices that bridge the electronic world to neurons with the objective to establish a long term stable contact for bidirectional information exchange. What does that mean in detail and to what kind of machine and for what purpose should the central nervous system, i.e. the brain, be connected? Science fiction literature and movies offer a tremendous variety of usually uncomfortable scenarios including cyborg and robocop super-humans and mass control. Do these implants change the (...) psyche in general and what is feasible in nowadays therapeutic and rehabilitative approaches? In this overview, the author will not answer these questions but tries to deliver an overview of the technological background, the opportunities and the limitations of neuro-technical interfaces to the central nervous system. The fundamental specifications for neuro-technical interfaces will be introduced. Different degrees of implant invasiveness will be discussed and lead to a summary of clinical systems with their application-specific complexity. Actual technological opportunities and limitations will be addressed as well as general physical limitations. Current and future scenarios of neuro-technical interfaces to the central nervous system will be presented from an engineering point of view arising some questions that might be of interest with respect to ethical and societal implications when those interfaces are transferred into clinical practice and public applications. (shrink)

Some neurotropic enteroviruses hijack Trojan horse/raft commensal gut bacteria to render devastating biomimicking cryptic attacks on human/animal hosts. Such virus-microbe interactions manipulate hosts’ gut-brain axes with accompanying infection-cycle-optimizing central nervous system disturbances, including severe neurodevelopmental, neuromotor, and neuropsychiatric conditions. Co-opted bacteria thus indirectly influence host health, development, behavior, and mind as possible “fair-weather-friend” symbionts, switching from commensal to context-dependent pathogen-like strategies benefiting gut-bacteria fitness.

We consider the evidence that RA†, the vitamin A metabolite, is involved in three fundamental aspects of the development of the CNS: (1) the stimulation of axon outgrowth in particular neuronal sub‐types; (2) the migration of the neural crest; and (3) the specification of rostrocaudal position in the developing CNS (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, spinal cord). The evidence we discuss involves RA‐induction of neurites in cell cultures and explants of neural tissue; the teratological effects of RA on the embryo's nervous (...) system; the observation that RA can be detected endogenously in the spinal cord; and the fact that the receptors and binding proteins for RA are expressed in precise domains and neuronal cell types within the nervous system. (shrink)

The sophisticated function of the central nervous system (CNS) is largely supported by proper interactions between neural cells and blood vessels. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that neurons and glial cells support the formation of blood vessels, which in turn, act as migratory scaffolds for these cell types. Neural progenitors are also involved in the regulation of blood vessel formation. This mutual interaction between neural cells and blood vessels is elegantly controlled by several chemokines, growth factors, extracellular matrix, (...) and adhesion molecules such as integrins. Recent research has revealed that newly migrating cell types along blood vessels repel other preexisting migrating cell types, causing them to detach from the blood vessels. In this review, we discuss vascular formation and cell migration, particularly during development. Moreover, we discuss how the crosstalk between blood vessels and neurons and glial cells could be related to neurodevelopmental disorders. (shrink)

The development of vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems requires the production of thousands to millions of uniquely specified neurons from progenitor neural stem cells. A central question focuses on the elucidation of the developmental mechanisms that function within neural stem cell lineages to impart unique identities to neurons. A recent report(1) details the roles that two genes, pdm‐1 and pdm‐2, play within an identified neural stem cell lineage in the Drosophila embryonic central nervous system. The (...) results show that pdm‐1 and pdm‐2 are coexpressed in an identified neural precursor and function redundantly to specify the fate of this cell. As such this report offers an initial view of the genetic programs that create neural diversity. (shrink)

The first paper in this pair (Bickhard in Axiomathes, 2015) developed a model of the nature of representation and cognition, and argued for a model of the micro-functioning of the brain on the basis of that model. In this sequel paper, starting with part III, this model is extended to address macro-functioning in the CNS. In part IV, I offer a discussion of an approach to brain functioning that has some similarities with, as well as differences from, the model presented (...) here: sometimes called the Predictive Brain approach. (shrink)

Standard semantic information processing models—information in; information processed; information out —lend themselves to standard models of the functioning of the brain in terms, e.g., of threshold-switch neurons connected via classical synapses. That is, in terms of sophisticated descendants of McCulloch and Pitts models. I argue that both the cognition and the brain sides of this framework are incorrect: cognition and thought are not constituted as forms of semantic information processing, and the brain does not function in terms of passive input (...) processing units organized as neural nets. An alternative framework is developed that models cognition and thought not in terms of semantic information processing, and, correspondingly, models brain functional processes also not in terms of semantic information processing. As alternative to such models: I outline a pragmatist oriented, interaction based, model of representation; derive from this model a fundamental framework of constraints on how the brain must function; show that such a framework is in fact found in the brain, and develop the outlines of a broader model of how mental processes can be realized within this alternative framework. Part I of this discussion focuses on some criticisms of standard modeling frameworks for representation and cognition, and outlines an alternative interactivist, pragmatist oriented, model. In part II, the focus is on the fact that the brain does not, in fact, function in accordance with standard passive input processing models—e.g., information processing models. Instead, there are multiple endogenously active processes at multiple spatial and temporal scales across multiple kinds of cells. A micro-functional model that accounts for, and even predicts, these multi-scale phenomena in generating emergent representation and cognition is outlined. That is, I argue that the interactivist model of representation outlined offers constraints on how the brain should function that are in fact empirically found, and, in reverse, that the multifarious details of brain functioning entail the pragmatist representational model—a very strong interrelationship. In the sequel paper, starting with part III, this model is extended to address macro-functioning in the CNS. In part IV, I offer a discussion of an approach to brain functioning that has some similarities with, as well as differences from, the model presented here: sometimes called the predictive brain approach. (shrink)

This article explores the expanding dimensions of Internet-based communication in connection with the potential up flowing of super-consciousness within virtual worlds. The presence of an Enlightened Master is highlighted as a necessary catalyst precipitating Internet mediated super-consciousness. The virtual world Second Life is cited as a model for addressing present day potentials for such a transformative process. A proposal is outlined for experimenting with the communicative potentials of virtual worlds. The Internet is illustrated as an emerging nervous system (...) of collective consciousness ready to undergo a cleansing process similar to that of an individual nervous system. A vision of future potentials is also considered. (shrink)

In the present paper, we will attempt to gain hints regarding the nature of tactile awareness in humans. At first, we will review some recent literature showing that an actual tactile experience can emerge in absence of any tactile stimulus (e.g., tactile hallucinations, tactile illusions). According to the current model of tactile awareness, we will subsequently argue that such (false) tactile perceptions are subserved by the same anatomo-functional mechanisms known to underpin actual perception. On these bases, we will discuss the (...) hypothesis that tactile awareness is strongly linked to expected rather than actual stimuli. Indeed, this hypothesis is in line with the notion that the human brain has a strong predictive, rather than reactive, nature. (shrink)

For focal neurodegenerative diseases or brain tumors, localized delivery of protein or genetic vectors may be sufficient to alleviate symptoms, halt disease progression, or even cure the disease. One may circumvent the limitation imposed by the blood-brain barrier by transplantation of genetically altered cell grafts or focal inoculation of virus or protein. However, permanent gene replacement therapy for diseases affecting the entire brain will require global delivery of genetic vectors. The neurotoxicity of currently available viral vectors and the transient nature (...) of transgene expression invivomust be overcome before their use in human gene therapy becomes clinically applicable. (shrink)

For focal neurodegenerative diseases or brain tumors, localized delivery of protein or genetic vectors may be sufficient to alleviate symptoms, halt disease progression, or even cure the disease. One may circumvent the limitation imposed by the blood-brain barrier by transplantation of genetically altered cell grafts or focal inoculation of virus or protein. However, permanent gene replacement therapy for diseases affecting the entire brain will require global delivery of genetic vectors. The neurotoxicity of currently available viral vectors and the transient nature (...) of transgene expression invivomust be overcome before their use in human gene therapy becomes clinically applicable. (shrink)

Philosophers of mind, both in the conceptual analysis tradition and in the empirical informed school, have been implicitly neglecting the potential conceptual role of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) in understanding sensory and perceptual states. Instead, the philosophical as well as the neuroscientific literature has been assuming that it is the Central Nervous System (CNS) alone, and more exactly the brain, that should prima facie be taken as conceptually and empirically crucial for a philosophical analysis (...) of such states This is the first monograph that focuses on the PNS and its constitutive role in sensory states, including pain, mechanoception, proprioception, tactile perception, and so forth. -/- The author argues that the brain-centeredness of current philosophy of mind is a prejudice, and proposes a series of original ways in which classic puzzles in the philosophy of mind can be solved once the hypothesis that PNS is a constitutive element of mental states is taken seriously. The author calls this “the Peripheral Mind Hypothesis”, and employs it in a vast range of issues, such as functionalism, physicalism, mental content, embodiment, as well as some issues in neuroethics. -/- Making equal use of conceptual analysis, empirical data from neuroscience, first-person phenomenological data, and philosophical speculation, this work offers a fresh look at, and novel solutions to many philosophical problems. (shrink)

New possibilities to modify function and direct repair in the central nervous system (CNS) have been established by the merger of gene transfer technology with neural transplantation. Rapid advances in viral‐mediated DNA‐delivery procedures permit the study of novel gene expression in neurons and glial cells. Foreign genes, transferred by a virus vector, can be used to generate new cell lines, identify transplanted cells, and express growth factors or enzymes for neurotransmitter synthesis. In addition to CNS cell types, (...) non‐neural cells are also being studied with transgene technology in the nervous system. Functional effects have been obtained with grafts of genetically modified cells in animal models of several nervous system disorders, and the recent results set the stage for potential application of these techniques to human CNS gene therapy. (shrink)

Alternative cleavage and polyadenylation (APA) can diversify coding and non‐coding regions, but has particular impact on increasing 3′ UTR diversity. Through the gain or loss of regulatory elements such as RNA binding protein and microRNA sites, APA can influence transcript stability, localization, and translational efficiency. Strikingly, the central nervous systems of invertebrate and vertebrate species express a broad range of transcript isoforms bearing extended 3′ UTRs. The molecular mechanism that permits proximal 3′ end bypass in neurons is mysterious, (...) and only beginning to be elucidated. This landscape of neural 3′ UTR extensions, many reaching unprecedented lengths, may help service the unique post‐transcriptional regulatory needs of neurons. A combination of approaches, including transcriptome‐wide profiling, genetic screening to identify APA factors, biochemical dissection of alternative 3′ end formation, and manipulation of individual neural APA targets, will be necessary to gain fuller perspectives on the mechanism and biology of neural‐specific 3′ UTR lengthening. (shrink)

This commentary on blumberg et al. addresses complications associated with diagnostic testing for sympathetic dependence of pain that can lead to inappropriate positive and negative conclusions. In addition, it is suggested that their test be conceived as a test of the effect of local vascular pressure and that the two types of sensory disorders presented may differ primarily in the degree of sensitization of central pain pathways. Detailed reports with functionally-oriented testing like that done by BLUMBERG are essential for (...) an understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms. (shrink)

To controlforceaccurately under a wide range of behavioral conditions, the central nervous system would either require a detailed, continuously updated representation of the state of each muscle (and the load against which each is acting) or else force feedback with sufficient gain to cope with variations in the properties of the muscles and loads. The evidence for force feedback with adequate gain or for an appropriate central representation is not sufficient to conclude that force is the (...) major controlled variable in normal limb movements.Morton's hypothesis, thatlengthis controlled by a follow-up servo, has a number of difficulties related to the delays, gains, variability, and specificity in feedback pathways comprising potential servo loops. However, experimental evidence is consistent with these pathways providing servo assistance for some movements produced by coactivation of α- and static γ-motoneurons. Dynamic γ-motoneurons may provide an additional input for adaptive control of different types of movements.The idea that feedback is used to compensate for changes in musclestiffnesshas received experimental support under static postural conditions. However, reflexes tend to increase rather than decrease the range of variation in muscle stiffness during some cyclic movements. Theoretical problems associated with the regulation of stiffness are also discussed. The possibilities of separate control systems forvelocityorviscosityare considered, but the evidence is either negative or lacking. I conclude that different physical variables can be controlled depending on the type of limb movement required. The concept of stiffness regulation is also useful under some conditions, but should probably be extended to the regulation of the visco-elastic properties (i.e., the mechanical impedance) of a muscle or joint. (shrink)

This target article draws together two groups of experimental studies on the control of human movement through peripheral feedback and centrally generated signals of motor commands. First, during natural movement, feedback from muscle, joint, and cutaneous afferents changes; in human subjects these changes have reflex and kinesthetic consequences. Recent psychophysical and microneurographic evidence suggests that joint and even cutaneous afferents may have a proprioceptive role. Second, the role of centrally generated motor commands in the control of normal movements and movements (...) following acute and chronic deafferentation is reviewed. There is increasing evidence that subjects can perceive their motor commands under various conditions, but that this is inadequate for normal movement; deficits in motor performance arise when the reliance on proprioceptive feedback is abolished either experimentally or because of pathology. During natural movement, the CNS appears to have access to functionally useful input from a range of peripheral receptors as well as from internally generated command signals. The unanswered questions that remain suggest a number of avenues for further research. (shrink)

Electromagnetic field oscillations produced by the brain are increasingly being viewed as causal drivers of consciousness. Recent research has highlighted the importance of the body’s various endogenous rhythms in organizing these brain-generated fields through various types of entrainment. We expand this approach by examining evidence of extracerebral shared oscillations between the brain and other parts of the body, in both humans and animals. We then examine the degree to which these data support one of General Resonance Theory’s principles: the Slowest (...) Shared Resonance principle, which states that the combination of micro- to macro-consciousness in coupled field systems is a function of the slowest common denominator frequency or resonance. This principle may be utilized to develop a spatiotemporal hierarchy of brain-body shared resonance systems. It is predicted that a system’s SSR decreases with distance between the brain and various resonating structures in the body. The various resonance relationships examined, including between the brain and gastric neurons, brain and sensory organs, and brain and spinal cord, generally match the predicted SSR relationships, empirically supporting this principle of GRT. (shrink)

Complementation and correction of a genetic defect with CNS manifestations lags behind gene therapy for inherited disorders affecting other organ systems because of shortcomings in delivery vehicles and access to the CNS. The effects of improvements in viral and nonviral vectors, coupled with the development of delivery strategies designed to transfer genetic material thoughout the CNS are being investigated by a number of laboratories in efforts to overcome these problems.

The article considers patterns of reactivity in organ systems mediated by the autonomic nervous system as they relate to central neural circuits activated by affectively arousing cues. The relationship of these data to the concept of discrete emotion and their relevance for the autonomic feedback hypothesis are discussed. Research both with animal and human participants is considered and implications drawn for new directions in emotion science. It is suggested that the proposed brain-based view has a greater potential (...) for scientific advance than the traditional model that emphasizes specific states of mind as mediators or reflectors of visceral action. (shrink)

There is increasing evidence that carbohydrate antigens act as cell recognition molecules in the highly organized structure of the nervous system. These carbohydrate antigens may be expressed as glycolipids, glycoproteins or proteoglycans, and in some cases all three forms of these glycoconjugates, expressing identical carbohydrate epitopes, can be detected in a specific brain region. This article summarizes recent studies concerning the expression of glycoconjugates during development of the vertebrate central nervous system. These findings are discussed (...) in association with current models of glycoconjugate function. (shrink)

Large numbers of cells with unique neuronal specificity are generated during development of the central nervous system of animals. Here we discuss the events that generate cell diversity during early development of the ventral nerve cord of different arthropod groups. Neural precursors are generated in a spatial array in the epithelium of each hemisegment over a period of time. Spatial cues within the epithelium are thought to evolve as embryogenesis proceeds. This spatiotemporal information might generate diversity among (...) the neural precursors in all arthropod groups, although the mechanisms regulating the positioning of individual precursors have diverged. However, distinct strategies for the generation of neuronal diversity have evolved in the different arthropod lineages that appear to correlate with specific modes of ontogenesis. We hypothesize that an evolutionary trend towards reduced cell numbers and possibly rapid embryogenesis in insects has culminated in the appearance of stereotyped neuroblast lineages. BioEssays 27:874–883, 2005. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (shrink)

A new theory of synaptic function in the nervous system (Dempsher, 1978) is applied to the simplest system for integration of function in the nervous system. This system includes a sensory and motor neuron and three synaptic regions associated with those two neurons; a receptor region, an interneuronal spinal synaptic region linking the two neurons, and an effector region.Information is first received and processed at the receptor region. The processing consists of five components:1. A (...) highly selective mechanism which allows only that information to enter the receptor system which is appropriate. 2. The appropriateness of the information is determined by the alphabet (miniature potentials) already in that area. 3. The information entering the system is assembled in a pattern meaningful for the next processing operation. 4. The assembled information is then disassembled into its subunits and mapped into the alphabet (miniature potentials). 5. These miniature potentials are assembled into another pattern meaningful to fit the role of the receptor region. 6. This new pattern is repacked for transit to the central synaptic region. (shrink)

While recent studies have shed some light on the significance of the electrical activity of the nervous system, there has been no adequate explanation for the wave formation or synchronization of this electrical activity. Adrian sums up the problem. “The origin of the 10-a-second rhythm is still uncertain, though the evidence points to some widespread organization, probably involving the central masses as well as the cortex. There are abundant nervous connexions for coordinating the beat, and when (...) the rhythm is well developed it is possible to record impulse discharges in phase with it passing to and fro in the nerve fibers of the white matter below the cortex. But in some areas no impulse could be detected entering or leaving the cell layers, though the potential waves keep more or less in step with those elsewhere. There is no proof that the waves are kept in phase by some means which does not involve nervous signalling, for impulses in axons of small diameter might well be missed, but it is not altogether unlikely that the synchronization is due in part to a direct electrical influence of one group of nerve cells on another. Gerard and Libet have shown that synchronization can occur between the two halves of a frog's brain cut in two and then placed in contact, and more recently Arvanitaki has shown that individual nerve cells may influence one another if they are brought close together in a conducting medium. At all events there are many examples of synchronized rhythmic activity in large collections of nerve-or-muscle cells. In the optic ganglion of the water beetle, for instance, there may be both a slow rhythm when the eye is in darkness and a rapid one when the eye is exposed to a bright light. The change from a slow to a fast rhythm is curiously reminiscent of that in the cerebral cortex when a sensory stimulus abolishes the 10-a-second rhythm and substitutes one at 40–60 a second. Such resemblances in preparations of quite different structures may be quite fortuitous, but they make it difficult to resist the suggestion that the rhythms of the brain may be dependent on the general properties of cell masses rather than on any special anatomical arrangement of them. Whatever its origin, the 10-a-second rhythm of the cortex corresponds to the resting, drowsy, or inattentive state and there is no such uniform pulsation when the brain is alert.”. (shrink)

The brain ventricular system is a series of connected cavities, filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), that forms within the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). The hollow neural tube is a hallmark of the chordate CNS, and a closed neural tube is essential for normal development. Development and function of the ventricular system is examined, emphasizing three interdigitating components that form a functional system: ventricle walls, CSF fluid properties, and activity of CSF constituent factors. The (...) cellular lining of the ventricle both can produce and is responsive to CSF. Fluid properties and conserved CSF components contribute to normal CNS development. Anomalies of the CSF/ventricular system serve as diagnostics and may cause CNS disorders, further highlighting their importance. This review focuses on the evolution and development of the brain ventricular system, associated function, and connected pathologies. It is geared as an introduction for scholars with little background in the field. (shrink)

Identifying the physiological processes in the central nervous system that underlie our conscious experiences has been at the forefront of cognitive neuroscience. While the principles of classical physics were long found to be unaccommodating for a causally effective consciousness, the inherent indeterminism of quantum physics, together with its characteristic dichotomy between quantum states and quantum observables, provides a fertile ground for the physical modeling of consciousness. Here, we utilize the Schrödinger equation, together with the Planck-Einstein relation between (...) energy and frequency, in order to determine the appropriate quantum dynamical timescale of conscious processes. Furthermore, with the help of a simple two-qubit toy model we illustrate the importance of non-zero interaction Hamiltonian for the generation of quantum entanglement and manifestation of observable correlations between different measurement outcomes. Employing a quantitative measure of entanglement based on Schmidt decomposition, we show that quantum evolution governed only by internal Hamiltonians for the individual quantum subsystems preserves quantum coherence of separable initial quantum states, but eliminates the possibility of any interaction and quantum entanglement. The presence of non-zero interaction Hamiltonian, however, allows for decoherence of the individual quantum subsystems along with their mutual interaction and quantum entanglement. The presented results show that quantum coherence of individual subsystems cannot be used for cognitive binding because it is a physical mechanism that leads to separability and non-interaction. In contrast, quantum interactions with their associated decoherence of individual subsystems are instrumental for dynamical changes in the quantum entanglement of the composite quantum state vector and manifested correlations of different observable outcomes. Thus, fast decoherence timescales could assist cognitive binding through quantum entanglement across extensive neural networks in the brain cortex. (shrink)

Paleoneuranatomy is an emerging subfield of paleontological research with great potential for the study of evolution. However, the interpretation of fossilized nervous tissues is a difficult task and presently lacks a rigorous methodology. We critically review here cases of neural tissue preservation reported in Cambrian arthropods, following a set of fundamental paleontological criteria for their recognition. These criteria are based on a variety of taphonomic parameters and account for morphoanatomical complexity. Application of these criteria shows that firm evidence for (...) fossilized nervous tissues is less abundant and detailed than previously reported, and we synthesize here evidence that has stronger support. We argue that the vascular system, and in particular its lacunae, may be central to the understanding of many of the fossilized peri‐intestinal features known across Cambrian arthropods. In conclusion, our results suggest the need for caution in the interpretation of evidence for fossilized neural tissue, which will increase the accuracy of evolutionary scenarios. Also see the video abstract here: https://youtu.be/2_JlQepRTb0. (shrink)