This article is concerned with the deprivation of patients’ liberty while undergoing psychiatric treatment, with special reference to the situation in Finland. It is based on a review of Finnish law, health care statistics, and empirical and theoretical studies. Relevant research findings from other countries are also discussed. In Finland, it is required that patients are cared for by mutual understanding with themselves; coercive measures may be applied only if they are necessary for the treatment of the illness, or for (...) safeguarding patients’ safety or the safety of others. Involuntary psychiatric hospitalization is closely regulated by the Mental Health Act. However, the rules concerning the deprivation of liberty during inpatient treatment (by seclusion, restraint and restricted leave) are formulated in very general terms. Therefore, Finnish psychiatric hospitals have their own policies concerning when and how seclusion may be used. The practice of seclusion and the use of restraint therefore vary among the psychiatric hospitals in Finland. (shrink)

BackgroundDuring adolescence, bullying often has a sexual content. Involvement in bullying as a bully, victim or both has been associated with a range of negative health outcomes. Transgender youth appear to face elevated rates of bullying in comparison to their mainstream peers. However, the involvement of transgender youth as perpetrators of bullying remains unclear in the recent literature.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to compare involvement in bullying between transgender and mainstream youth and among middle and late adolescents in a (...) general population sample.MethodsOur study included 139,829 students in total, divided between a comprehensive school and an upper secondary education sample. Associations between gender identity and involvement in bullying were first studied using cross-tabulations with chi-square statistics. Logistic regression was used to study multivariate associations. Gender identity was used as the independent variable, with cisgender as the reference category. Subjection to and perpetration of bullying were entered each in turn as the dependent variable. Demographic factors, family characteristics, internalizing symptoms, externalizing behaviors, and involvement in bullying in the other role were added as confounding factors. Odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals are given. The limit for statistical significance was set at p < 0.001.ResultsBoth experiences of being bullied and perpetrating bullying were more commonly reported by transgender youth than by cisgender youth. Among transgender youth, all involvement in bullying was more commonly reported by non-binary youth than those identifying with the opposite sex. Logistic regression revealed that non-binary identity was most strongly associated with involvement in bullying, followed by opposite sex identity and cisgender identity. Transgender identities were also more strongly associated with perpetration of bullying than subjection to bullying.ConclusionTransgender identity, especially non-binary identity, is associated with both being bullied and perpetrating bullying even when a range of variables including internal stress and involvement in bullying in the opposite role are taken into account. This suggests that bullying during adolescence may serve as a mechanism of maintaining heteronormativity. (shrink)

Today, monitoring of patient complaints in healthcare services is being used as a tool for quality assurance systems and in the future development of services. This nationwide register study describes the number of all complaints processed, number of complaints between different state provinces, healthcare services and healthcare professionals, and outcomes of complaints in Finland during the period 2000–2004. All complaints processed at the State Provincial Offices and the National Authority for Medicolegal Affairs were analysed by statistical methods. Complaints about mental (...) healthcare were explored in greater detail. The analysis showed that the number of patient complaints increased considerably during the study period. There were changes in the number of complaints between study years in different provinces. Out of different healthcare services, an especially marked increase was seen in private healthcare. Nearly all complaints were lodged against physicians, and over half of the complaints were made because of medical error. In mental health care, patients more often complained about unsatisfactory certificates and statements and the use of compulsory hospital care. An analysis of the outcomes revealed that in mental health care complaints more seldom led to consequences. The results need to be utilised when planning interventions for advanced supervision, prevention of adverse events and patient safety in healthcare, and especially in mental health care. From the patients’ perspective, it is important to create a culture where most problem situations are handled where the treatment was provided, thus avoiding a complex complaints process. (shrink)

This article examines the problematic phenomenon of political naming through conceptual history. It is evident that illiberal is an ambiguous term and determining what it means is challenging, not to mention the political aspects of the name itself. We claim that naming is a political act par excellence and test our hypothesis by examining Viktor Orbán’s Băile Tuşnad speeches between 2014 and 2019 and the annual State of the Nation speeches between 2015 and 2020. We claim that even Orbán has (...) difficulties in naming his political system. Moreover, we link naming to discussions concerning democracy. In Hungary, this “illiberal” position enables a ruling party to act in accordance with a purely majoritarian form of democracy, that is, to implement legislation with very little regard to the opposition, and by concentrating power to the party and especially to its leader. (shrink)

The collagen family of extracellular matrix proteins has played a fundamental role in the evolution of multicellular animals. At the present, 28 triple helical proteins have been named as collagens and they can be divided into several subgroups based on their structural and functional properties. In tissues, the cells are anchored to collagenous structures. Often the interaction is indirect and mediated by matrix glycoproteins, but cells also express receptors, which have the ability to directly bind to the triple helical domains (...) in collagens. Some receptors bind to sites that are abundant in all collagens. However, increasing evidence indicates that the coevolution of collagens and cell adhesion mechanisms has given rise to receptors that bind to specific motifs in collagens. These receptors may also recognize the different members of the large collagen family in a selective manner. This review summarizes the present knowledge about the properties of collagen subtypes as cell adhesion proteins. BioEssays 29:1001–1010, 2007. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (shrink)

Das Buch ist als Festschrift dem estnischen Erziehungswissenschaftler Professor Dr. Dr. h.c. Dr. h.c. Heino Liimets (1928-1989) gewidmet. Der Sammelband besteht aus vier Teilen, von denen drei die wichtigsten Schwerpunkte des wissenschaftlichen Werks von Heino Liimets widerspiegeln. Im ersten Teil (An Heino Liimets denkend) schreiben seine Kollegen und ehemaligen Studenten ihre Erinnerungen uber ihn. Der zweite Teil (Uber die Denkkulturen) beinhaltet die Beitrage uber Erziehungs- und Bildungsphilosophie, Geschichte der Padagogik und uber die methodologischen Probleme der Erziehungswissenschaft. Im (...) dritten Teil (Ich - Selbst - Identitat) fragt man philosophisch und padagogisch denkend nach der Selbstwerdung des Menschen. In den Beitragen des vierten Teils (Uber die Erziehungskulturen) werden die Ergebnisse der empirischen Untersuchungen zu den Erziehungskulturen zu Hause und in der Schule dargestellt.". (shrink)

There is some very limited evidence for a role of estrogens in human psychosexual masculinization; its interpretation is uncertain. Fitch & Denenberg's demonstration of a role for estrogens in the behavioral feminization of nonhuman mammals implicitly suggests an answer to a riddle posed by the syndrome of congenital adrenal hyperplasia in women.

The crisis resilience of vital social systems is currently the target of constant development efforts in Finland, as their drifting into crisis would weaken societies’ functional abilities, safety, and security. This is also the case regarding the Finnish health care system. In an attempt to move beyond existing frameworks of crisis imagination, this article takes an unconventional stance by elucidating endogenous crisis dynamics present in the Finnish health care system. Delphi process was conducted for top experts in Finnish health care (...) and crisis management. With a dissensus-seeking orientation, our aim was to fertilize disagreements among panelists to reveal key vulnerabilities in the health system. Despite our efforts to evoke dissensus, the panelists ended up generating a consensus that aims to protect the underlying assumptions of the health system’s knowledge structure. Through inductive analysis of expert discourses, the data was analyzed through our research question “what constitutes a crisis-proof health system and a crisis-prone health system”. What is framed as a strength of the system by our panelists, namely the ability to maintain legitimacy, improve efficiency, and guarantee continuity, can still have questionable implications that are left ungrasped. A system’s theory approach illustrates how such effects can develop and escalate beyond the reach of social interventions, and thus be predisposed to cause objectionable yet concealed social crises. The discussion illustrates how these endogenous crisis dynamics could be seen to materialize in real-life cases. (shrink)

From Einstein's point of view, his General Relativity Theory had strengths as well as failings. For him, its shortcoming mainly was that it did not unify gravitation and electromagnetism and did not provide solutions to field equations which can be interpreted as particle models with discrete mass and charge spectra, As a consequence, General Relativity did not solve the quantum problem, either. Einstein tried to get rid of the shortcomings without losing the achievements of General Relativity Theory. Stimulated by papers (...) of Weyl 465) and Eddington 194), from 1923 onward, he believed that, to reach this goal, one has to transit to space–times which possess more comprehensive geometrical structures than the Riemann space–time. This was the beginning of a decade's lasting search for a unitary field theory. We describe this exciting part of the history of physics, discuss achievements and failures of this development, and ask how these early attempts of a unified theory strike us today. Taking into account the fact that the Equivalence Principle only speaks for a geometrization of gravitation, we consider an alternative way to give those non-Riemannian structures which were introduced by the unitary field approach a physical meaning, namely the meaning of a generalized gravitational field. This is interesting since there are arguments in favor of such a generalization of General Relativity Theory, e.g., the problems the latter theory meets with if one tries to quantize it and to unify gravitation with other interactions. (shrink)

This volume recognizes and addresses the health care issues of prisoners, to establish best practices and to learn about approaches to these challenges from around the world. It presents new evidence on several emerging and classical prison health issues. The first goal of this volume is to address emerging issues related to health in prison. Second, it presents the most recent research-based evidence and translates it to the practice. The third goal, is that it allows for sufficient diversity while also (...) incorporating updates of some important already recognized prison health. The volume discusses prisons and the life and well-being of prisoners and staff, after growing problems as drug misuse (incl. tobacco smoking), infectious diseases (HIV/AIDS, hepatitis, STIs and TB), psychiatric problems, inadequate and unhealthy living conditions (incl. nutrition), overcrowding of prisons. These are addressed adequately in order to meet the international requirements of equivalence of health care. The scope of this volume is at the same type specific and diverse enough to cover the interests of a large audience that includes many types of practitioners involved in health-related issues in the field of prison health care, such as psychologists, nurses and prison administration officers responsible for health care, legal professionals and social workers. (shrink)

Die Physik unserer Zeit ist ohne die Arbeiten Albert Einsteins undenkbar. Zu seinen wichtigsten wissenschaftlichen Leistungen gehören die Begründung der Speziellen und Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie, die Mitbegründung der Quantenund Atomphysik und die Ausgestaltung all dieser Theorien. Seine eigentliche Ambition ging aber über das von ihm Erreichte hinaus. Er beabsichtigte, eine einheitliche physikalische Theorie begründen. Diese wollte er nicht durch eine Verbindung der Gesetze der klassischen Felder mit den Regeln der Quantenphysik, sondern durch die Verallgemeinerung seiner Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie gewinnen. Denn letztere hatte (...) eine gegenüber der vorgängigen Physik epochale Änderung der Beziehung von Geometrie und Physik bewirkt. Gemäß Einsteins Programm einer einheitlichen Theorie sollten alle physikalischen Felder und Teilchen als Konfigurationen eines einheitlichen geometrischen Feldes, das die Struktur der Raum-Zeit-Welt bestimmt, ableitbar sein. Grenzen und Perspektiven dieses Programms werden diskutiert. (shrink)

From both physical and epistemological viewpoints, the following theses, which nowadays are often discussed in the literature, are examined: Nonlinear thermodynamics renders it possible to grasp evolutionary physical processes; for thermodynamics it introduces, instead of idealized reversible time, a directed time into physics; thus a science is established that is nearer to reality than classical physics. To analyze these theses, the relation of thermodynamics to dynamical physics is considered. In particular, it is demonstrated that, in classical as well as in (...) modern thermodynamics, irreversibility is introduced via conditions which must be formulated in addition to the dynamical laws. To show the reason for this, the epistemological status of the physical time conception is analyzed, and its character as a physical measurement quantity is established. (shrink)

The ArgumentThe idea of evolution doubtlessly marks a revolution in our way of thinking. It is the most recent achievement of philosophy and forms the basis of the modern world picture. Current discussions concerning the status of science now convey the impression that any scientific discipline that wants to satisfy modern requirements must also become a theory of evolution. These discussions ignore the reasons which once induced Kant to desist from reformulating classical mechanics as a theory of evolution and instead (...) to found his critical philosophy, according to which the epistemological starting points of natural science and philosophy are different in principle. In other words, there is no examination of whether the reasons given by Kant are of a principle nature so that they are still valid today, but rather, ignoring Kant's arguments, it is taken for granted that a different physical theory than classical mechanics could achieve this.Because nonlinear thermodynamics in particular is often presented as a candidate that justifies hopes of an evolutionary physics, the position of this branch within the structure of physics will be investigated here. It will be seen that a historical component is introduced into physics via initial, boundary, and other supplementary conditions, but that this does not mean that historicity has been grasped in laws, which is of course the point of a scientific theory of development.It is demonstrated that the conclusion drawn for physics by some authors from nonlinear thermodynamics, according to which physics today becomes an evolutionary physics incorporating the cognitive subject, is wrong. The progress made by modern thermodynamics is, without doubt, significant. The widespread philosophical interpretation of thermodynamics rests, however, on an antiquated ontologization of physical concepts and thus on the usual procedure of mechanicism.If one tries to introduce the conception of evolution into natural science by leveling the difference between philosophy and natural science in a mechanistic manner, then the dialectical evolutionary conception which represents a new epoch of human thinking degenerates to an evolutionism, where lawfulness is replaced by accidentalness. (shrink)

It is demonstrated that in quantized general relativity one is led to Jordan-Fock type uncertainty relations implying the occurrence of cut-off lengths. We argue that these lengths (i) represent limitations on the measurability of quantum effects of general relativity and (ii) provide a cut-off length of quantum divergences.

The difference between the measurement bases of classical and quantum mechanics is often interpreted as a loss of reality arising in quantum mechanics. In this paper it is shown that this apparent loss occurs only if one believes that refined everyday experience determines the Euclidean space as the real space, instead of considering this space, both in classical and quantum mechanics, as a theoretical construction needed for measurement and representing one part of a dualistic space conception. From this point of (...) view, Einstein's program of a unified field theory can be interpreted as the attempt to find a physical theory that is less dualistic. However, if one rgards this dualism as resulting from the requirements of measurements, one can hope for a weakening of the dualism but not expect to remove it completely. (shrink)

Rediscussing early arguments have led to the founding of quantum electrodynamics, but it is shown that one cannot employ them for the founding of quantum GRT. These arguments rather demonstrate that Einstein's GRT is essentially classical.

The structure and “metabolism” (movement and conversion of goods and energy) of urban areas has caused cities to be identified as “super‐organisms”, placed between ecosystems and the biosphere, in the hierarchy of living systems. Yet most such analogies are weak, and render the super‐organism model ineffective for sustainable development of cities. Via a cluster analysis of 15 shared traits of the hierarchical living system, we found that industrialized cities are more similar to eukaryotic cells than to multicellular organisms; enclosed systems, (...) such as factories and greenhouses, paralleling organelles in eukaryotic cells. We further developed a “super‐cell” industrialized city model: a “eukarcity” with citynucleus (urban area) as a regulating centre, and organaras (enclosed systems, which provide the majority of goods and services) as the functional components, and cityplasm (natural ecosystems and farmlands) as the matrix. This model may improve the vitality and sustainability of cities through planning and management. (shrink)

Reminiscing on the fact that E. Schrödinger was rooted in the same physical tradition as M. Planck and A. Einstein, some aspects of his attitude to quantum mechanics are discussed. In particular, it is demonstrated that the quantum-mechanical paradoxes assumed by Einstein and Schrödinger should not exist, but that otherwise the epistemological problem of physical reality raised in this context by Einstein and Schrödinger is fundamental for our understanding of quantum theory. The nonexistence of such paradoxes just shows that quantum-mechanical (...) effects are due to interference and not to interaction. This line of argument leads consequently to quantum field theories with second quantization, and accordingly quantum theory based both on Planck's constant h and on Democritus's atomism. (shrink)

Was ist wirklich? Was ist die Wirklichkeit? Anhand einer epistemologischen Analyse der Physik werden Fragen diskutiert, die der Uberzeugung entspringen, dass das Wissen der exakten Naturwissenschaften -formal-, dass es sogenanntes Verstandeswissen ist, das als solches die Wirklichkeit nicht direkt, nicht adaquat zu reflektieren vermag, dennoch aber die exakten Naturwissenschaften zu allgemeingultigen Gesetzesaussagen uber die Wirklichkeit gelangen. Die Antwort auf die Frage, wie dies moglich ist, wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit gesucht, indem Probleme der Physik sowohl in ihrer modernen Auspragung als (...) auch in ihren antiken Urformen und ihrer klassischen Newtonschen Gestaltung untersucht werden. Dabei ergibt sich, dass die physikalischen Begriffsbildungen massgeblich durch das Prinzip der experimentellen Methode bestimmt sind, das die Begrundung physikalischer Gesetze erst ermoglicht, zugleich aber eine Begrenztheit des physikalischen Wirklichkeitsbegriffs impliziert.". (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Reviewed by:Space, Place and Capitalism: The Literary Geographies of “The Unknown Industrial Prisoner” by Brett HeinoDavid McLaughlinSpace, Place and Capitalism: The Literary Geographies of “The Unknown Industrial Prisoner” BY BRETT HEINO Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021I would not be the first to describe Brett Heino’s new book as timely. Its publication in 2021 coincided with the fiftieth anniversary of the first publication of David Ireland’s The Unknown Industrial (...) Prisoner (1971). This experimental novel, centered on a “kaleidoscopic vision” of its characters and their lives, tells the story of a group of workers at the Puroil refinery in a fictionalized part of Sydney. In Heino’s own words, this project emerged from a desire to write about industrialization and representation in Australian fiction. Working primarily as a legal scholar and historian, this work represents his first foray into literary geography.At the heart of Heino’s argument is a question: What does literature know about space? In his pursuit of a spatially-directed reading of The Unknown Industrial Prisoner, Heino eschews work in literary geography that cultural geographers might recognize— particularly the writings of Sheila Hones, the doyenne of an emerging interdiscipline of literary geography, whose practitioners work at the interstices between literary studies and geography. Heino criticizes this interdisciplinary literary geography as being too focused on establishing the “sovereignty” or “imperialism” of fictional space at the expense of recognizing the [End Page 132] role of literature in the world. Arguably, such a stance is a misreading of the thinking within literary geography that “reading literature is essentially an experimental process in which the categorical distinction between the frames of ‘fact’ and ‘fiction’ become blurred,”1 and where the “ontological distinction between literary and non- literary spaces” is undermined.2 Neither of these statements supposes that reading literature is a practice by which the world falls away and nothing remains but the book. Instead, following Doreen Massey’s idea that space is a complicated process of events and happenings, literary geographers in this mold argue that fiction is a part of life as it happens, and reading is a constitutive practice in the co- production of space.In its place, Heino emphasizes a form of literary geographical thinking that understands literature’s role as being separate from, but intimately connected to, the actual world. His theoretical framework is multi-layered, borrowing from Marxist literary scholars, including Terry Eagleton and Fredric Jameson, and Marxist geographers, including Henri Lefebvre. In essence, however, it can be expressed neatly in the following quotation from geocritic Bertrand Westphal:Fiction does not reproduce the real, but actualises new virtualities that had remained unformulated, and then goes on to interact with the real according to the hypertextual logic of interfaces... fiction detects possibilities buried in the folds of the real, knowing that these folds have not been temporised.3I think that Heino’s rejection of what he characterizes as poststructural literary geography, of the kind represented in his analysis of Sheila Hones’s work, misses some opportunities. First, there are similarities between his conception of literary geography and those he leaves aside— not least, their shared acceptance of the productive tension that sits between literature as text and world as practical, non- representational, and exceeding narrative. Secondly, the shared aim of both approaches is to understand how “representation ‘takes place’ and precisely how texts are part of what happens.”4 This is particularly powerful in the light of Heino’s aim to understand the development and contents of literary texts in materialist terms. Despite these areas [End Page 133] of convergence, Heino’s argument that literary geography’s potential to analyze class and political structures remains untapped is well founded. This is where Heino’s contribution is at its strongest.Heino’s work is at its most convincing when he discusses the realities of “abstract space” that both permeate the spaces of The Unknown Industrial Prisoner and structure the very fabric of latter- twentieth century Australia. Running through both Heino’s critique and Ireland’s novel is an understanding “that the inherent drive of capital is towards the creation of a fragmented, homogenised and hierarchised space within which it can produce and... (shrink)

Sowohl bei dem Paul- als auch dem Hiob-Dilemma ist der Anteil der zweiten Entwicklungsstufe erstaunlich hoch. Es wurde ja bereits auf das Verantwortungsgefühl der Finnen auch in bezug auf die Religion hingewiesen. Vielleicht spiegelt sich dadurch einiges von dem im Volke lebendigen Protestantismus wider. Ende 2000 zählten 85% der Gesamtbevölkerung von Finnland zur evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche . Nach Schätzungen von Heino wird die Kirche immer noch für einen Moralisten gehalten, der die Menschen daran erinnert, was angemessen ist und was nicht. (...) Vermutlich liegt er dabei nicht falsch, wenn man das von den Vertretern der zweiten Stufe vermittelte Gottesbild betrachtet. Die auffällig großen Anzahlen der dritten Stufe bei den Ergebnissen dieser Untersuchung, die auf Interviews von aktiven Kirchenmitgliedern beruht, liegen noch höher als erwartet. Dies kann durch die Vielzahl der Formen von Religiosität auf der dritten Stufe erklärt werden, vom Atheismus bis zum Fundamentalismus, wie auch Oser und Gmünder feststellen . Aufgrund dieser vorliegenden Ergebnisse läßt sich leicht der zweifachen Auslegung der dritten Stufe durch Schweitzer und Bucher zustimmen. Danach stellt die religiös ausgerichtete dritte Stufe eine natürliche Phase der Entwicklungs des Individuums auf dem Weg zur nächsten Stufe dar. Die nicht-religiös ausgerichtete dritte Stufe ist der Endpunkt einer Entwicklung. Bei meiner Untersuchung würde die dritte Stufe eben ausdrücklich die ausreligiös gerichtete Entwicklungsstufe ausmachen, wobei es sich sehr wohl z. B. um das Auseinandergehen von kirchlicher und persönlicher Religiosität handeln könnte. Dies unterstützt meine These von der Privatisierung der Religiosität, insbesondere bei Männern. Der Gesamtanteil der dritten Stufe läßt sich auch von der lutherischen Zwei-Regimentlehre her erklären. Die Einteilung in ein irdisches und geistiges Regiment, in diesseitige und jenseitige Angelegenheiten, wird den auffällig großen Anteil der dritten Stufe zumindest nicht senken. Bei ihren Überlegungen über den Unterschied zwischen der Transzendenz und der Immanenz betonen Oser und Gmünder die Verbindung der religiösen Reife mit der religiösen Weltanschauung. Je höher die religiöse Entwicklung ist, umso dringender benötigt man eine Auslegung der jeweiligen Situation nach den Kriterien des religiös-metaphysischen Weltbildes, die auf die Betrachtung der Welt als einer Ganzheit in unterschiedlichen neuartigen Situationen beruhen. In Finnland läßt sich allem An-schein nach die Integration der religiösen Dimensionen hinsichtlich der lutherischen Regimentlehre nur schwer auffassen. Hinzu kommt die Frage nach der Universalität der Entwicklung der religiösen Struktur und nach deren unveränderlicher, die Kulturgrenzen überschreitender Entwicklungslinie. Die Resultate dieser Untersuchung unterstützen mit gewissem Vorbehalt die Auffassung, nach der die Entwicklung der religiösen Struktur in verschiedenen Kulturen gleichartigen Gesetzmäßigkeiten unterliegen würde. Die Hinweise auf die Kulturverbundenheit religiöser Äußerungen werden gleichfalls zu einem gewissen Punkt durch das finnische Material bekräftigt. Die Kulturverbundenheit kann im Hintergrund geschichtlicher Ereignisse betrachtet werden. Die finnische Gesellschaft und damit verbunden auch das Weltbild und die Religiosität der Finnen gerieten gegen Mitte der 60er Jahre in eine Übergangsphase. Die Urbanisierung beschleunigte sich, und die traditionelle Agrarkultur begann sich aufzulösen. Mit der Zunahme der Arbeitstellen in der Industrie entstanden immer dichter bewohnte Siedlungen. Im Zusammenhang mit dieser Entwicklung änderte sich auch das religiöse Weltbild allmählich. Die Veränderungen in bezug auf die Religiosität geschahen zumindest anfangs langsam, denn z. B. noch in der Mitte der 70er Jahre erwähnte Pentikäinen , folgende Termini als allgemein gebräuchlich für die finnische Lebensart: "The Finnish way of life and Finnish world view." Laut Heino bezeichnen die Wörter Unverbundenheit, Privatisierung und Synkretismus die Veränderung in der Religiosität der Finnen in den letzten Jahren. Den Statistiken zufolge zeigt sich auch im religiösen Leben das Streben nach Individualität und Unabhängigkeit. Das Nebeneinander vieler Religionen verblüfft ebenso. Diese von Heino beschriebene Lage der letzten Jahre kann als der Endpunkt des in den 60er Jahren begonnenen Entwicklungsprozesses angesehen werden. Aus der Perspektive der religiösen Entwicklung stimuliert die Umwelt nicht gerade die Entstehung eines reifen religiösen Denkens. Im Jahre 1967 waren die Befragten meiner Untersuchung im Alter von 23-37 Jahren. Daß man sich an das Weltbild der Jugend festklammert, kann sehr wohl eine Erklärung für den Stillstand der religiösen Entwicklung auf der zweiten oder dritten Stufe sein. Holm schrieb, wie unsere Kultur dazu neigt, religiöse Auffassungen als recht kindlich hinzustellen. Manch einer mag glauben, daß es bei religiösen Fragen nicht wie üblich erlaubt ist, seinen Überlegungen freien Lauf zu lassen. Es gilt, entweder den naiven Kindesglauben aufrechtzuerhalten oder seinen Glauben ganz aufzugeben. Holm betont, daß eine starke bewußte Arbeit nötig ist, um früh erlernte Überzeugungen verarbeiten, sich neu zu orientieren und sich weiter zuentwickeln. Steht solch ein Prozeß erst an den Anfängen oder ist er vielleicht noch nicht abgeschlossen? Zu Beginn meiner Untersuchung wurde die Hypothese aufgestellt, daß die eigenen Erfahrungen eventuell in einer Verbindung mit der Entwicklungsstufe des religiösen Urteils stehen. Die Hypothese erwies sich als falsch. Die Ergebnisse meiner Untersuchung sind eigentlich recht logisch. Diesen Resultaten zufolge besteht kein Zusammenhang zwischen einem religiösen Dilemma im eigenen Leben und einer hohen religiösen Entwicklungsstufe. Eigene Erfahrungen über religiöse Dilemmata oder Leiden fördern den Entwicklungsprozeß keineswegs. Diese Ergebnisse können als Stütze grundsätzliche Annahme strukturalistischer Theorien angesehen werden, d.h. die Annahme einer invarianten Sequenz. Die Stufen können nicht überschritten werden, sondern man unterliegt der immanenten Logik der Transformationen der Strukturen. Sie bekräftigen auch die von Kohlberg erwähnte grundsätzliche Vermutung der kognitiven Theorie, wonach die Entwicklung kognitiver Strukturen das Resultat des Interaktionprozesses zwischen der Struktur des Organismus und der Struktur der Umwelt ist und nicht so sehr das Ergebnis von Lernen und Reifung. Welche Rolle die Umwelt und das Lernen bei der religiösen Entwicklung spielen, bleibt noch bei umfangreicheren Projekten in der Zukunft zu untersuchen. (shrink)