The Umayyad period. The beginnings of sectarianism ; The Khārijites ; The Shīʻtes ; The Murjiʼites and other moderates -- The first wave of Hellenism 750-950. The historical background ; The translators and the first philosophers ; The expansion of Shīʻism ; The Muʻtazilites ; The consolidation of Sunnism ; Al-Ashʻarī -- The second wave of Hellenism 950-1258. The historical background ;The flowering of philosophy ; The vicissitudes of Shīʻism ; The progress of Sunnite theology ; Al-Ghazālī ; Sunnite theology (...) from 1100 to 1250 ; Theology and philosophy in the Islamic west -- The period of darkness. The historical background ; The sclerosis of philosophical theology ; The vitality of the Ḥanbalites ; The transformation of Shīʻism -- The new dawn. The prospect for theology. (shrink)

In this volume, originally published in 1983, W Montgomery Watt looks at the meeting of Christianity and Islam, how they see and have seen each other, and considers how they can aid each other in dealing with the problems of the world today. He emphasizes those beliefs which Christianity and Islam have in common, and shows how they may be justified intellectually.

This is the standard general account in English of Islamic philosophy and theology. It takes the reader from the religio-political sects of the Kharijites and the Shiites through to the assimilation of Greek thought in the medieval period, and onto the early modern period. Watt concludes with an analysis of Western influences on modern Islamic theology.

A study of the struggle and achievement of al-Ghazālī, which examines his life and thought as a whole within the context of the time in which he lived. al-Ghazālī has been acclaimed as the greatest Muslim after Muḥammad, and is certainly one of the greatest. His outlook, too, closer than that of many Muslims to the outlook of modern Europe and America, and will be more easily comprehended today.

Originally published in 1967, this Companion is designed to help readers of the Qur’an by giving them necessary background information. An account is given of ideas peculiar to the Qur’an, and the main variant interpretations are noted. A full index of Qur’anic proper names and an index of words commented on has been provided. Based on A J Arberry’s translation, this Companion can be used with other translations, or indeed with the original text, since the verses are numbered.

* A selection of key writings on the problem of war and peace* Introduces students to general issues in ethics and moral theology. * Key contributors from around the world.This reader samples a wide range of modern moral and religious discussions on the subject of war and peace. In addition to providing material on pacifism, the just war debate, the nuclear option, genocide, and the concept of a holy war, it introduces students to general issues in ethics and moral theology, (...) using the morality of war as a powerful and pertinent worked example.Contributors include Elizabeth Anscombe, George Bell, Charles Curran, Y. Harkabi, Richard Harries, Stanley Hauerwas, Paul Ramsey, W. Montgomery Watt, Rowan Williams. (shrink)

Makalede İlâhî vahyin insanın ontolojik gerçekliğini göz ardı etmediğini, ontolojik gerçekliği üzerinden insanlara mesaj verdiği konusu ele alınmıştır. Bu durum, rüya ve şeriatlerin farklılığıyla ispat edilmeye, bu fikre temayül gösteren ancak Kur’ân hakkında olumsuz bir argüman olarak kullanan Montgomery Watt gibi müsteşriklere de cevap verilmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu yapılırken ilk önce bilinçaltının anlaşılması hususunda bazı örnekler verilmiş sonra rüya sembollerinde baskın olan kültürel unsurlara temas edilmiştir. Rüyalardaki sembollerin şekillenmesinde mantıksal bağı irdeleyen İslam ulemasının açıklamalarına ve rüya tevillerine de yer (...) verilmiştir. Bu yorum ve tevillerden anlaşıldığı kadarıyla insanlarda ortak görülen sembollerin Jung’un arketip, İslam ulemasının ise zihinsel kalıp ve manaların elbisesi dediği bir nevi kültürün kodlarından oluşan bilinçaltı alfabesi tarafından formlaştığı anlaşılmaktadır. Dini değer ve ifadeler Müslüman kültürde en dominant öğeler olduğundan Müslüman yorumcular genelde rüya sembollerini Kur’an ve hadisteki sözler veya bu sembolleri çağrıştıran ifadelerle yorumlamaya çalışmışlardır. Bu mantıktan hareketle tefsirde büyük problem olarak görülen Hz. İbrahim’in, oğlu İsmail’i kurban etme olayı ele alınmış ve nasıl anlaşılmasının gerektiği üzerinde durulmuştur. Bunun, baskın kültür altında sembolleşen bir rüya olduğu ve İsrail Oğullarına ‘Bakar’ kesme emriyle toplumun yanlış algısının değiştirilmesinin amaçlanması gibi çocukların tanrılara kurban edildiği ortamdaki yanlışlığın giderilmesi, kurban ritüelini tebdil edilmesinin amaçlandığı ifade edilmiştir. Daha sonra şeriat-ontolojik gerçeklik ilişkisi irdelenmiş, dinde bütün insanların ortak fıtratının esas alındığı ve bundan dolayı dinin bütün insanlar için değişmeyen bir olgu, şeriatlerin ise kültürün baskın olduğu ve dolayısıyla bir yönüyle ilişki içinde olduğu toplumsal bilinçaltı olduğu vurgulanmıştır. Kur’ân’da, dinin temel prensipleri ve resullerin üzerine birleştikleri kapsamlı şeriat kanunları dile getirilmiştir. Genel hatlarıyla din, Allah’ın varlıkları üzerine yarattığı (insanın tabiatının kolektif değişmezliğine dayalı) ve bütün mahlûkata sevimli geleni, marufu emretmeyi, münkerden nehyi, temiz şeyleri helal eden, zararlı olan şeyleri haramı eden emirleri içermektedir. İslam ulemasına göre bütün semavi dinlerde esas olan Allah’a, meleklerine, resullerine, kitaplarına ve ahiret gününe iman etmek, insanın yaptığı takdirde Müslüman olacağı fiilleri işlemektir. Bu iman da doğal olarak dünyadan yüz çevirmeyi, ahirete yönelmeyi, güzel ahlakı edinmeyi ve kötü ahlaktan da kaçınmayı gerektirir. Ancak şeriatlar ise birbirinden farklılık gösterebilir. Çünkü şeriatlar dinin indiği toplumun hallerini ve maslahatlarını esas aldığından değişiklik arz eder. Şeriatların farklılaşmasında toplumsal bilinçaltının göz ardı edilmediğini göstermek bağlamında Kur’ân’dan örnekler verilmek suretiyle savunulan tez ispat edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Bunlardan birisi, Kur’ân’da Arapların ortak duygularının esas alınması, kültürel bazı unsurların kullanılması, bir diğeri de yabancı isimlerin Arapların ifade ettiği şekliyle, ümmi anlayışa uygun kullanılmasıdır. Ayrıca bu konuda bazı helal yiyeceklerin Yahudilere haram kılınması ve diğer şeriatlerde yer alan bazı farklılıklar üzerinde durulmuştur. Helal yiyeceklerin haram kılınması konusunda Hz. Yakub’un yakalandığı ağır hastalıktan iyileştiği takdirde sevdiği yiyecekleri yememeyi nezretmesi, buna bağlı olarak iyileşince deve eti ve sütünü yiyip içmemesi, daha sonra çocukları ve ümmetinin de bu yiyeceklerden uzak durması sonucunda Tevrat’ta bunların haram kılınması örneği üzerinde durulmuştur. Bu örnek, şeriatlerin farklılaşmasının nedeninin bir şeye karşı tavrın toplumsal bir alışkanlık halini almasının sonucu olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Nitekim teravih namazının Müslümanlarca toplu kılınması ve buna devam edilmesi durumunda farz kılınır endişesiyle evlerinde kılmalarını tavsiye eden Allah Resulünün endişesinin de bunu pekiştirdiği dile getirilmiştir. Diğer şeriatlerde bazı farklılıklar konusunda ise orucun öncekilere farz kılınmasına rağmen keyfiyetinin farklı olması üzerinde durulmuştur. Aynı şekilde namaz, zekât ve haccın semavî dinlerinin hepsinde olmasına rağmen keyfiyetinin değiştiği örneklerle izah edilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda milletlerin yaşam tarzlarının ve kültürünün dolayısıyla toplumsal bilinçaltı şeriatlerin farklılığında gözönüne alındığı ifade edilmiştir. Nitekim İsâ peygambere tabi olanların kendilerine emredilmemekle birlikte Allah’ın rızasını elde etmek için ruhbanlığı kendilerine farz kılmaları ve buna devam etmeleri karşısında Allah’ın buna itibar ederek, ruhbanlıkta bulunanlara ücretlerini verdiğini ifade etmesi de bu durumu pekiştirmektedir. Sonuç olarak din ve dine taalluk eden her şeyin insanlığın ortak fıtratını esas aldığını, şeriatten şeriate değişiklik gösteren unsurların da kültürel ve bir yönüyle toplumsal bilinçaltıyla ilgili olan hususlar olduğu ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. (shrink)

Although Dirār b. ʿAmr is the most important mutakallim of the second century, he is unfortunately one of the unjustified names in the history of kalām. Dirâr is a mutakallim whose name is rarely mentioned in theological publications published in both Turkish and foreign languages until recently, and his importance and position are still not noticed. As a matter of fact, Josef van Ess and W. Montgomery Watt, who are famous orientalists, discovered this tragic fact and tried to (...) make up for this deficiency to some extent with their studies. Dirâr wrote a refutation of Aristotle's theory of substance and accident, opened a new way with his understanding of existence based on accidents and led Ash'ari with the theory of kasb and Ebu'l-Huzayl al-‘Allaf with his kalām accumulation. Undoubtedly, one of the things that makes Dirār important is that he had views that went beyond his time and caused him to contradict his contemporaries as early as the second century in terms of the history of Islamic thought. Considering the list of works that have not survived, except for one, in such a period when the mainstream sects were not yet formed and they were on the eve of their formation, Dirār was generally in a critical dialogue with the Islamic and non-Islamic movements he encountered and knew. For this reason, it is almost impossible to place him in any religious sect mentioned in his period. Because he often preferred to follow his own ideas rather than the opinions of others on many issues. Naturally, this makes it difficult to place Dirār in a certain school and frees him from all kinds of bonds. Yes, in the sources we come across many allegations, accusations and slanders that Dirār is a Cahmi/Jabri, he is a Mu‘tazili, he is an innovator with malignant ideas, he is an infidel to put a bounty on his head. Understanding the reasons for these depends on getting to know Dirār, understanding his ideas, and determining his position. If we say in the context of our study, the position of Dirār is actually a state of non-position, and we think that the concept that best expresses this situation in a new interpretation is "nawābit". In the light of our analysis, we see that, with the exception of a name, nawābit is used as a concept with a negative content and connotation in both theology and philosophy. The exceptional person is the famous philosopher Ibn Bājja (Avempace) from Andalusia, the contemporary of Ibn Rushd (Averroes). While Mu‘tazili mutakallims use nawābit to humiliate groups such as Ahl-i hadith and Hashviyye, which adopt the narration-oriented line that puts reason and acumen to the second place, Al-Fārābī also uses the fault types and the sick characters in his virtuous city that he has constructed to describe. Ibn Bājja, on the other hand, considers the people called nawābit within his project to be equivalent to the "mutawahhid" (alone human) whose "precaution" he aims; this usage which corresponds with the context of the concept in the study. Because, in our study, nawābit is not considered as an identity, but as a representation of a character. (shrink)

This article reconstructs Henri Bergson’s argument at the beginning of the second chapter of his Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience for his view that every idea of number involves sp...

_The Ethics of Pregnancy, Abortion and Childbirth_ addresses the unique moral questions raised by pregnancy and its intimate bodily nature. From assisted reproduction to abortion and ‘vital conflict’ resolution to more everyday concerns of the pregnant woman, this book argues for pregnancy as a close human relationship with the woman as guardian or custodian. Four approaches to pregnancy are explored: ‘uni-personal’, ‘neighborly’, ‘maternal’ and ‘spousal’. The author challenges not only the view that there is only one moral subject to consider (...) in pregnancy, but also the idea that the location of the fetus lacks all inherent, unique significance. It is argued that the pregnant woman is not a mere ‘neighbor’ or helpful stranger to the fetus but is rather already in a real familial relationship bringing real familial rights and obligations. If the status of the fetus is conclusive for at least some moral questions raised by pregnancy, so too are facts about its bodily relationship with, and presence in, the woman who supports it. This lucid, accessible and original book explores fundamental ethical issues in a rich and often neglected area of philosophy in ways of interest also to those from other disciplines. (shrink)

Biological sex should be “acknowledged” and “accepted”—but which responses to gender dysphoria might this preclude? Trans-identified people may factually acknowledge their biological sex and regard transition as purely palliative. While generally some level of self-deception and even a high level of nonlying deception of others are sometimes justified, biological sex is important, and there is a nontrivial onus against even palliative, nonsexually motivated cross-dressing. The onus is higher against co-opting the body, even in a minor and/or reversible way, to make (...) a false communication concerning one’s sex. Hardest to defend is the destruction of sexual–reproductive functions and causally downstream functions such as lactation: due to the transcendent nature of sexual–reproductive functions, an appeal to the “principle of totality” here is misplaced. This is not to say that social, and milder medical, transition is absolutely excluded even for severe unmanageable dysphoria, nor that subsequent to any transition, detransition is necessarily required. (shrink)

Supporting the 14-day rule or other embryo research time limits raises puzzling questions for those wishing to protect older embryos (or indeed, more developed human subjects). What are, or should be, our more immediate aims in setting or implementing such time limits? May death for the research subject be sought as the limit approaches? If the embryo is worth protecting, is it in the embryo’s interests to be sustained by a scientist, albeit for instrumental reasons? Should embryo research, including observational (...) research, be prevented, despite the embryo’s interest in living further? This paper argues that the aim to prevent more prolonged experimentation, while reasonable, should not be promoted via the means of deliberately arranging the embryo’s death. Time limits can encourage such intentions, even if they do not require them. The case is made that while a regulatory status quo should not be amended in favor of a worse alternative, there are several morally preferable options with which the 14-day rule or more permissive alternatives might be replaced. (shrink)

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) organelle is the key intracellular site of both protein and lipid biosynthesis. ER dysfunction, termed ER stress, can result in protein accretion within the ER and cell death; a pathophysiological process contributing to a range of metabolic diseases and cancers. ER stress leads to the activation of a protective signalling cascade termed the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR). However, chronic UPR activation can ultimately result in cellular apoptosis. Emerging evidence suggests that cells undergoing ER stress and UPR (...) activation can release extracellular signals that can propagate UPR activation to target tissues in a cell non‐autonomous signalling mechanism. Separately, studies have determined that the UPR plays a key regulatory role in the biosynthesis of bioactive signalling lipids including sphingolipids and ceramides. Here we weigh the evidence to combine these concepts and propose that during ER stress, UPR activation drives the biosynthesis of ceramide lipids, which are exported and function as cell non‐autonomous signals to propagate UPR activation in target cells and tissues. (shrink)

Health services internationally struggle to ensure health care is “person-centered” (or similar). In part, this is because there are many interpretations of “person-centered care” (and near synonyms), some of which seem unrealistic for some patients or situations and obscure the intrinsic value of patients’ experiences of health care delivery. The general concern behind calls for person-centered care is an ethical one: Patients should be “treated as persons.” We made novel use of insights from the capabilities approach to characterize person-centered care (...) as care that recognizes and cultivates the capabilities associated with the concept of persons. This characterization unifies key features from previous characterisations and can render person-centered care applicable to diverse patients and situations. By tying person-centered care to intrinsically valuable capability outcomes, it incorporates a requirement for responsiveness to individuals and explains why person-centered care is required independently of any contribution it may make to health gain. (shrink)

Cooperation in wrongdoing is an everyday matter for all of us, though we need to discern when such cooperation is morally excluded as constituting formal cooperation, as opposed to material (unintended) cooperation whether justified or otherwise. In this paper, I offer examples of formal cooperation such as referral of patients for certain procedures where the cooperating doctor intends an intrinsically wrongful plan of action on the part of the patient and a medical colleague. I also consider a case of formal (...) cooperation where the cooperator intends a choice on the part of another person that is not intrinsically wrong, but wrong in the circumstances because the person believes it will cause serious uncompensated harm. (shrink)

The term “value of life” can refer to life’s intrinsic dignity: something nonincremental and time-unaffected in contrast to the fluctuating, incremental “value” of our lives, as they are longer or shorter and more or less flourishing. Human beings are equal in their basic moral importance: the moral indignities we condemn in the treatment of e.g. those with dementia reflect the ongoing human dignity that is being violated. Indignities licensed by the person in advance remain indignities, as when people might volunteer (...) their living, unconscious bodies for surrogacy or training in amputation techniques. Respect for someone’s dignity is significantly impacted by a failure to value that person’s very existence, whatever genuine respect and good will is shown by wanting the person’s life to go well. Valuing and respecting life is not, however, vitalism: there can be good and compelling reasons for eschewing some means of prolonging life. (shrink)

A cross-species affective neuroscience strategy for understanding the primary-process (basic) emotions is defended. The need for analyzing the brain and mind in terms of evolutionary stratification of functions into at least primary (instinctual), secondary (learned), and tertiary (thought-related) processes is advanced. When viewed in this context, the contentious battles between basic-emotion theorists and dimensional-constructivist approaches can be seen to be largely nonsubstantial differences among investigators working at different levels of analysis.

The social construction of reality is influenced extensively by the mass media. Commercialised images of masculinity, including discourses to interpret it, are continuously reflected and/or created by sources of mass media, in a myriad of ways. These images are subjectively loaded, but still effectively communicate to us, and even entice and persuade us. It furthermore wields extensive power over men - especially over their self-images, passions, and egos. In this article, dominating images and discourses concerning manhood and male identity - (...) particularly those displayed in men's health magazines - were critically examined. This was done through a thematic analysis of 123 issues of MHM cover pages. The investigation showed that MHM is infused with traditional masculine ideology. Moreover, MHM fails to confront discourses that endorse hegemonic masculinity, for the sake of holistic health. It was suggested that a sober, precautionary, health strategy should challenge men to critically engage with MHM's reigning creed: 'big, hard and up'. This creed incites a utilitarian view of sexuality within a culture of performance-driven masculinity, which subsequently fuels anxieties that can lead to unhealthy issues, such as body image dissatisfaction. From a pastoral care perspective, it was asserted that Christian men need to search for alternative ways to instigate their capacity to experience and facilitate authentic intimacy, in order to work toward the social construction of more balanced and healthy discourses on male identity. (shrink)

The subject of this article is a powerful objection to the non-conceptualist interpretation of Kant’s transcendental deduction of the categories. Part of the purpose of the deduction is to refute the sort of scepticism according to which there are no objects of empirical intuition that instantiate the categories. But if the non-conceptualist interpretation is correct, it does not follow from what Kant is arguing in the transcendental deduction that this sort of scepticism is false. This article explains and assesses a (...) number of possible responses to this objection. (shrink)

The “principle of double effect” is a vital tool for moral decision making and is applicable to all areas of medical practice, including (for example) end-of-life care, transplant medicine, and cases of conscientious objection. Both our ultimate and our more immediate intentions are relevant in making and evaluating choices— though side effects must be kept proportionate and can be morally conclusive when linked with some intentions. Intentions help to form the character of doctors, and of human beings generally. While hypocrisy (...) is certainly possible in regard to this form (and other forms) of moral reasoning, double effect reasoning, sincerely practised, remains indispensable in identifying moral problems and solutions. (shrink)