At all biological processes, we see a variability of the individuals. The problem is, to find out the valuation of the different reactions. Size and form of the variation dependend upon the environment. That has been demonstrated in fig. I on the second moult of the bugBagrada picta. In overcrowded populations most of the individuals are retarded, but the first moulting individuals not so much as the later ones. In cultures of bedbugs bread at 34° C, the moultings of the (...) individuals with a bad physiological constitution take place — from generation to generation — much later than those of the best individuals. The variability is also changed with the mortality, as has been demonstrated in fig. 3. Some generations ofPicris brassicae depend upon temperature in a different kind . Fig 5 demonstrates, that the lower and the upper limit of the variability ist fixed. These examples make evident, that their is a physiological difference between the biological reaction of the individuals. Therefore, their average depends also upon the environment and in comparing we will get rules only, but in regarding the highest possible efficiency of the species or race, we will get laws. This highest efficiency is given for insects by the shortest times for the development, by the lowest mortality and by the highest production of healthy eggs in each combination of temperature and humidity. The curve in fig. 4 and the lower curve in fig. 5 are mathematical catenary curves, which represent, therefore, a real biological law for the influence of temperature. The knowledge of this character of the variability is important both for the theoretical and for the applied biology.Chez tous les réactions de la vie, nous trouvons une variabilité des individus. C'est une problème de trouver la valeur des différentes réactions. La grandeur et la forme de la variation dependent des conditions des environs. Fig.i montre la deuxième mue de la pentatomideBagrada picta. Dans les populations avec beaucoup d'individus il y a une rétardation, mais la rétardation des premiers individus n'est pas si grande que celle des derniers. Des punaises toujours cultivées à 34° C montrent la mème phénomène, mais encore plus distinctement dans les générations succédents. La variation est changée aussi avec la mortalité . Fig. 4 montre, que la même réaction de plusieurs générations duPieris brassicae est hétérogene. Fig. 5 fait voir que les limites de la variabilité sont fixées.Par ces exemples, il est évident, qu 'il y a une différence physiologique entre les réactions des individus. La moyenne arithmétique ne suffit pas pour une comparaison et conduit seulement aux règles; mais nous trouverons les lois biologiques avec les individus, qui montrent les réactions les mieux posibles pour une espèce ou une race. Chez les insectes ce sont p. ex. la dévéloppement la plus vite, la mortalité la plus petite, la plus grande nombre d'oeufs bien portants. Fig. 4 et 5 montrent des courbes caténulaires pour la dévéloppement la plus vite. Elles représentent la loi biologique pour l'influence de la température. Le savoir du charactère de la variabilité est très important pour la biologie théoretique de même que pour la biologie pratique. (shrink)

Ernst Cassirer occupies a unique space in Twentieth-century philosophy. A great liberal humanist, his multi-faceted work spans the history of philosophy, the philosophy of science, intellectual history, aesthetics, epistemology, the study of language and myth, and more. The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms is Cassirer's most important work. It was first published in German in 1923, the third and final volume appearing in 1929. In it Cassirer presents a radical new philosophical worldview - at once rich, creative and controversial - (...) of human beings as fundamentally "symbolic animals," placing signs and systems of expression between themselves and the world. This major new translation, the first for over fifty years, brings Cassirer's magnum opus to a new generation of students and scholars. Volume 1: Language is a fascinating examination of arguably the most fundamental of these systems of expression: human language. Cassirer traces the problem of language and expression far back in the history of philosophy, considering the work of the early Greek rationalists. He then examines the later empiricist tradition, up to the romantic tradition in the nineteenth century tackling fundamental questions about representation, signification and expression as well as language and conceptual thought in mathematics and science. Correcting important errors in previous English editions, this translation reflects the contributions of significant advances in Cassirer scholarship over the last twenty to thirty years. Each volume includes a new introduction and translator's notes by S. G. Lofts, a foreword by Peter Gordon, a glossary of key terms, and a thorough index. (shrink)

Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik ist ein unveränderter, hochwertiger Nachdruck der Originalausgabe aus dem Jahr 1890. Hansebooks ist Herausgeber von Literatur zu unterschiedlichen Themengebieten wie Forschung und Wissenschaft, Reisen und Expeditionen, Kochen und Ernährung, Medizin und weiteren Genres. Der Schwerpunkt des Verlages liegt auf dem Erhalt historischer Literatur. Viele Werke historischer Schriftsteller und Wissenschaftler sind heute nur noch als Antiquitäten erhältlich. Hansebooks verlegt diese Bücher neu und trägt damit zum Erhalt selten gewordener Literatur und historischem Wissen auch für die (...) Zukunft bei. (shrink)

Egocentricity and Mysticism is a philosophical milestone that clarifies our relationship to language, social interaction, and mortality. Ernst Tugendhat casts mysticism as an innate facet of what it means to be human--a response to an existential need for peace of mind.

Comprehensive evaluation and study of man's theories and knowledge of genetical characteristics and the evolutionary processes.

Explores the development of the ideas of evolutionary biology, particularly as affected by the increasing understanding of genetics and of the chemical basis of inheritance.

The anthropological scale -- Organ projection -- The first tools -- Limbs and measure -- Apparatuses and instruments -- The inner architecture of the bones -- Steam engines and rail lines -- The electromagnetic telegraph -- The unconscious -- Machine technology -- The fundamental morphological law -- Language -- The state.

Six essays which analyze the non-national thought processes that influence culture.

Are people selfish or altruistic? Throughout history this question has been answered on the basis of much introspection and little evidence. It has been at the heart of many controversial debates in politics, science, and philosophy. Some of the most fundamental questions concerning our evolutionary origins, our social relations, and the organization of society are centered around issues of altruism and selfishness. Experimental evidence indicates that human altruism is a powerful force and unique in the animal world. However, there is (...) much individual heterogeneity and the interaction between altruists and selfish individuals is key for understanding the evolutionary dynamics as well as the proximate patterns of human cooperation. Depending on the environment, a minority of altruists can force a majority of selfish individuals to cooperate or, conversely, a few egoists can induce a large number of altruists to defect. Current gene-based evolutionary theories cannot explain important patterns of human altruism pointing towards the need for theories of cultural evolution and gene-culture coevolution. (shrink)

In this volume, Ernst Troeltsch embraces historical relativity while rejecting historical relativism, and thereby provides a model for the philosophy of history. The volume remains as relevant as it was in 1923.

Le texte qui suit est une conférence donnée par Ernst Cassirer en 1945 au Cercle linguistique de New York. Il est publié pour la première fois – à titre posthume – dans le numéro inaugural de la revue _Word_ sous le titre « Structuralism in modern linguistics » (_Word_, 1(2), 1945, 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1945.11659249 ). La présente traduction s’accompagne d’une bibliographie rassemblant toutes les références citées par Cassirer. Nous renvoyons également, lorsque celle-ci est disponible, à la traduction française des textes (...) cités. (shrink)

Matthias Ernst untersucht vier unterschiedliche Werke aus dem 16. Jahrhundert, in denen Dialektik in deutscher Sprache erstmals Thema war. Diese Dialektiken bearbeiten auf der Basis diverser Quellen Themen wie Ideenfindung, Argumentation und Logik, wobei auch die Rhetorik als assoziierte Kunst zur Sprache kommt. Sie nehmen nicht nur hinsichtlich der verwendeten deutschen Sprache eine Pionierrolle ein, sondern befassen sich eigenstandig und kritisch mit der zur damaligen Zeit aktuellen Theorielage. Das macht sie zu wichtigen Zeugnissen des Renaissance-Humanismus. Die spezifische Auspragung der (...) dialektischen Theorie wird fur jedes einzelne Werk ebenso herausgearbeitet wie der Umgang der Autoren mit logisch-dialektischer Terminologie. (shrink)

Provides a philosophical analysis of such biological concepts as natural selection, adaptation, speciation, and evolution.

Our studies of aesthetics and knowledge have long tended to privilege the visual - at the expense, Wolfgang Ernst argues, of the aural. 'Sonic Time Machines' aims to correct that, presenting a striking new approach to theorising sound that investigates its split existence: as a temporal effect in a techno-cultural context and as a source of knowledge and information. Ernst creates a new term for the concept at the heart of the book, "sonicity," a flexible and powerful term (...) that allows him to consider sound with all its many physical, philosophical, and cultural valences."--Page 4 de la couverture. (shrink)

In der vorwiegend analytisch gepragten philosophischen Emotionsdebatte der Gegenwart findet die Erlebnisdimension von Emotionen bislang wenig Beachtung. Dieses Buch mochte einen neuen Impuls setzen, indem es die liebes- und hassphanomenologischen Entwurfe von Max Scheler und Aurel Kolnai fur den aktuellen Diskurs fruchtbar macht und alternative Begriffe von Liebe und Hass entwickelt, die sich primar an der emotionalen Erfahrung orientieren. Zentrale Bedeutung kommt hierbei dem besonderen Wertbezug dieser beiden Emotionen sowie der Person als ihrem spezifischen Objekt zu.

The following lecture on Monism is an informal address delivered extemporaneously on October 9, 1892, at Altenburg, on the seventy-fifth anniversary of the "Naturforschende Gesellschaft des Osterlandes." The immediate occasion of it was a previous address delivered by Professor Schlesinger of Vienna on "Scientific Articles of Faith." This philosophical discourse contained, with reference to the weightiest and most important problems of scientific investigation, much that was indisputable; but it also contained some assertions that challenged immediate rejoinder and a statement of (...) the opposite view. As I had for thirty years been very closely occupied with these problems of the philosophy of nature, and had set forth my convictions with respect to them in a number of writings, a wish was expressed by several members of the Congress that on this occasion I should give a summary account of these. (shrink)

The ancients were interested in the questions of what love really is, why it exists, and how it is experienced. This book presents the best examples, from Homer to Apuleius, interpreted and analyzed by the author. Through an examination of these selections from Greek and Latin literature, some main themes are revealed: success in love with the help of a god; the pursuit of happiness, unity, and completeness; love and beauty; love as an illness, wound, or suffering; betrayal in love, (...) adultery, murder, and death; love as the creating force of the world; the existence of friendship; the basis of parental love; the meaning of love for oneself; the basis and the results of the gods' love for humans. Also included is a comparison of ancient ideas of love with those in later literature and our own ideas about love today. (shrink)

In the Preface of Animal Species and Evolution (1963), I wrote that it was "an attempt to summarize and review critically what we know about the biology and genetics of animal species and their role in evolution." The result was a volume of XIV ...

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work was reproduced from the original artifact, and remains as true to the original work as possible. Therefore, you will see the original copyright references, library stamps (as most of these works have been housed in our most important libraries around the world), and other notations in the work. This work is in the public domain (...) in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work. As a reproduction of a historical artifact, this work may contain missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant. (shrink)

L'œuvre de Cassirer nous offre une vision pluraliste du XVIIIe siècle. Sous cet éclairage, Rousseau redevient citoyen de Genève et Bayle le banni de Rotterdam, le cartésianisme se fait principalement hollandais et Voltaire l'interprète de Newton. Pour Cassirer, le XVIIIe siècle est ce foisonnement convergent qui rompt les frontières nationales comme les frontières de langues, de classes ou de disciplines. Dans cette brillante synthèse, Cassirer s'emploie à balayer les poncifs. Certes, le XVIIIe siècle politique, mais il est aussi un grand (...) siècle religieux : celui de la lutte contre l'intolérance et la superstition, celui, surtout, de l'élaboration des fondements de la foi. Siècle qui marque la naissance de l'esprit historique, le XVIIIe siècle a le sens de la relativité des valeurs. Enfin, il est le siècle de l'esthétique : toute théorie de l'art en viendra. (shrink)

If cooperative dispositions are associated with unique phenotypic features (’green beards’), cooperative individuals can be identified. Therefore, cooperative individuals can avoid exploitation by defectors by cooperating exclusively with other cooperative individuals; consequently, cooperators flourish and defectors die out. Experimental evidence suggests that subjects, who are given the opportunity to make promises in face-to-face interactions, are indeed able to predict the partner’s behavior better than chance in a subsequent Prisoners’ Dilemma. This evidence has been interpreted as evidence in favor of green (...) beard approaches to the evolution of human cooperation. Here we argue, however, that the evidence does not support this interpretation. We show, in particular, that the existence of conditional cooperation renders subjects' choices in the Prisoners’ Dilemma predictable. However, although subjects predict behavior better than chance, selfish individuals earn higher incomes than conditional cooperators. Thus, although subjects may predict other players’ choices better than chance evolution favors the selfish subjects, i.e., the experimental evidence does not support the green beard approach towards the evolution of cooperation. (shrink)

This collection of revised and new essays argues that biology is an autonomous science rather than a branch of the physical sciences. Ernst Mayr, widely considered the most eminent evolutionary biologist of the 20th century, offers insights on the history of evolutionary thought, critiques the conditions of philosophy to the science of biology, and comments on several of the major developments in evolutionary theory. Notably, Mayr explains that Darwin's theory of evolution is actually five separate theories, each with its (...) own history, trajectory and impact. Ernst Mayr, commonly referred to as the "Darwin of the 20th century" and listed as one of the top 100 scientists of all-time, is Professor Emeritus at Harvard University. What Makes Biology Unique is the 25th book he has written during his long and prolific career. His recent books include This is Biology: The Science of the Living World (Belknap Press, 1997) and What Evolution Is (Basic Books, 2002). (shrink)

“Art is necessary in order that man should be able to recognize and change the world. But art is also necessary by virtue of the magic inherent in it.”—Ernst Fischer Reissued with an introduction by John Berger, The Necessity of Art is a beautifully written meditation on art’s importance in viewing the world in which we live. In this wide-ranging and erudite exploration of literary and fine art, Fischer looks at the relationship between the creative imagination and social reality, (...) arguing that truthful art must both reflect existence in all its flaws and imperfections, and help show how change and improvement might be brought about. With his emphasis on the individual’s need to engage with society, his rejection of rampant consumerism and hypertechnology, and his indomitable optimism, this radical, affirmative and humane vision of the artistic endeavor remains as timely today as when it was first published sixty years ago. (shrink)

Provides a thorough overview of historical and contemporary theories of evolution, discusses key concepts and terms, and argues that our understanding of evolution has changed the beliefs and values of modern humankind. Reprint. 30,000 first printing.

It is assumed a) that the statement that a human right exists means that a state which does not grant it is not legitimate, and b) that the legitimacy of power can, in modern times, be justified only by showing that it is in the equal interest of everybody. Mere democracy is insufficient to legitimate political power. Freedom for every individual must be guaranteed. So much is common ground in the controversy on human rights, but to interpret these freedom as (...) a negative freedom, as the classical conception of human rights has done, is insufficient and therefore illegitimate, because it is not in the equal interest of everybody. To add a positive concept of freedom is correct but not enough, because it still neglects those who even if they are given the facilities do not have the capacity. Since the handicapped, the old and the young cannot even enter a contract and the disposessed cannot enter a fair contract, the contractarian foundation of human rights must be discarded. (shrink)

WE HAVE LEARNED in the preceding chapter that a revolutionary change of the species concept is in the making, a change which not only affects taxonomic procedure, but which also contributes considerably toward a better understanding of ...

Thukydides wird in diesem Band als Analytiker staatlicher und ordnungspolitischer Konzepte behandelt. Ein interdisziplinärer Ansatz, der die Perspektiven von Philologie, Geschichts-, Rechts- und Politikwissenschaft zusammenführt, trägt sowohl dem Rang des Geschichtsschreibers wie auch dessen divergierender Rezeption bis in die heutige Zeit Rechnung.