In 1993, investigators from George Washington University Medical Center separated the cells of 17 human embryos and produced 48 embryos, an average of three embryos for each original. The method, variously called twinning, cloning, embryo splitting, and blastomere separation, demonstrated that human embryos could be split to create genetically identical entities during conception. When publicized, however, the experiment brought to mind a different view of cloning repeated since the beginning of the new reproductive technologies. In the early 1970s, when research (...) on in vitro fertilization was in its infancy, commentators worried that cloning–defined as the duplication of persons–would be next, leading to a scenario of “boys genetically exactly like the father, girls like the mother, or individuals like some true or false hero of art, science, or sports, or like some demagogue or some saint.”. (shrink)

A scientist at Edinburgh University announced in 1994 that he had removed ovaries from, mouse fetuses and transplanted them, to adult mice. The ovaries released eggs, and conceptions occurred. Although this was not the first such attempt with mice, the study attracted attention because the researcher suggested, that fetal to adult ovarian transplants were a theoretical possibility for humans. If aborted, fetuses were used, as egg sources in assisted conception, a new entity would arise: the never-born genetic mother. Using eggs (...) from aborted fetuses for conception would lead to quixotic and novel family ties. Its use would echo surrogate gestational motherhood, in which a child has both a genetic mother who contributed her egg and a gestational mother who contributed her uterus for gestation and childbirth. With fetal egg use, however, the child's genetic mother would be a never-born fetus without sentience or known, physiology. (shrink)

As increasing numbers of infertility clinics in the U.S. offer embryo freezing as part of their IVF protocols, public debate on its ethical implications has calmed. Yet in clinical settings, unanswered questions suggest the need to keep alive the ethical debate about the benefits to patients and society of embryo freezing.

To clone humans is deliberately to generate two or more individuals who share the same nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid. Using animals, researchers have performed two basic types of cloning that will eventually yield commercial benefits. Embryo twinning involves separating the individual cells of an embryo and allowing each to cleave for later transfer to a uterus. Cloning by nuclear transfer involves removing the nuclei from embryonic cells or fetal or adult somatic cells and fusing those nuclei with enucleated donor egg cells. (...) Although for the purposes of commercial biotechnology these techniques do not raise undue concern when attempted with animals, embryo twinning, embryo nuclear transfer, fetal somatic cell nuclear transfer, and adult somatic cell nuclear transfer all provoke intense ethical discussions when considered for human use. (shrink)

To clone humans is deliberately to generate two or more individuals who share the same nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid. Using animals, researchers have performed two basic types of cloning that will eventually yield commercial benefits. Embryo twinning involves separating the individual cells of an embryo and allowing each to cleave for later transfer to a uterus. Cloning by nuclear transfer involves removing the nuclei from embryonic cells or fetal or adult somatic cells and fusing those nuclei with enucleated donor egg cells. (...) Although for the purposes of commercial biotechnology these techniques do not raise undue concern when attempted with animals, embryo twinning, embryo nuclear transfer, fetal somatic cell nuclear transfer, and adult somatic cell nuclear transfer all provoke intense ethical discussions when considered for human use. (shrink)

Much of the literature on therapeutic somatic cell nuclear transfer covers the moral arguments for and against proceeding and the policy stall occasioned by conflicts over the moral status of embryos. Yet it is also worthwhile to view policy from the standpoint of the resources available as well as of deficiencies in those resources. This article uses the idea of a policy community to examine policy making from a starting point that focuses not on what divides, but rather on the (...) groups and individuals committed to enabling ES cell research and therapeutic SCNT. Although written with international dimensions in mind, the article focuses on the United States, where the politics are particularly volatile and the likelihood of policy leadership at the national level is remote. (shrink)