The aim of this study is to examine the relation between Nietzsche’s perspectivism and his doctrine of the will to power and to show that perspectivism is almost a direct and natural consequence of the doctrine of the will to power. Without exploring the doctrine, it is not possible to understand what Nietzsche’s perspectivism is and what he trying to do by proposing it as an alternative to traditional epistemology. To this aim, firstly, Nietzsche’s doctrine of the will to power (...) is explained in detail. Next, in order to provide a deeper understanding of the doctrine, its relation with Darwinism and the claims which say that it is a metaphysical principle are analyzed. Afterwards, Nietzsche’s construction of the world as becoming out of will to power is investigated. Nietzsche’s conception of interpretation as power struggle and its role in perspectivism explained. Then, how Nietzsche’s construction of the world as becoming and his concept of interpretation as power struggle emerge as perspectivism is explained. After that, in order to present the differences between Nietzsche’s perspectivism and traditional understanding of epistemology, Nietzsche’s critiques of some of the fundamental assumptions of traditional epistemology, i.e., causality, logic, and subject-object and apparent-real world distinctions, are investigated. Finally, Nietzsche’s understanding of truth based on his perspectivism is inquired. Its relation with correspondence, pragmatic and coherence theories of truth is explored to show that Nietzsche’s understanding of truth could not be comprehended through these theories. Consequently, it isclaimed that the tendency to attribute a truth theory to Nietzsche’s perspectivism, which is prevalent in the current Nietzsche studies, stems from commentator’s, consciously or unconsciously, ignoring of the relation between his perspectivism and his doctrine of the will to power. (shrink)

Çağımızın seçkin kültür ve düşünce tarihçilerinden Frank Turner’ın Yale Üniversite’sinde verdiği derslerden oluşan Rousseau’dan Nietzsche’ye Avrupa Düşünce Tarihi, Aydınlanma döneminden yirminci yüzyılın başına dek Avrupa’da yaşanan radikal değişimi fikir akımları ve öncü figürler üzerinden anlatıyor. Oxford Today’in editörü Richard Lofthouse tarafından derlenen bu dersler, farklı disiplinleri ustaca bir araya getirerek döneme dair kapsamlı bir bakış açısı sunuyor. Yale’in en sevilen hocalarından Turner’ın açık, akıcı ve öğretici üslubu sayesinde düşünce tarihinin zorlu dönemeçlerinde kolaylıkla yol alacak, dersler bittikten sonra kitabın sonundaki okuma (...) listesini takip ederek daha fazlasını öğrenmek isteyeceksiniz. (shrink)

Karl Marx’ın 1844 Ekonomik ve Felsefi Elyazmaları onun yabancılaşma kavrayışını anlamak açışından oldukça önemli bir metindir. Bu metinde dört farklı yabancılaşma türünden söz edilir. Ancak, Marx’ın bu yabancılaşma biçimlerine ilişkin açıklamaları incelendiğinde, aslında bunlardan birinin, türsel yabancılaşmanın, daha temel olduğu ve diğerlerinin de bu yabancılaşma biçiminden kaynaklandığı ortaya çıkar. Türsel yabancılaşmanın temel yabancılaşma biçimi olduğu iddiası, hem Marx’ın emeğin yabancılaşmasının özel mülkiyetin nedeni olduğu iddiasını temellendirmeyi hem de yabancılaşmanın sadece kapitalist sisteme özgü bir olgu olmadığını göstermeyi olanaklı kılar.

«Demokrasi, insani varoluşa içkin olanakları hem pozitif hem de negatif özgürlükler bağlamında hayata geçirme ve her tekil insanın kendisini ne ise o olarak algılama arzusuna eşlik edecek “ontolojik haysiyet eşitliği” talebinin sesidir. Dile getirdiğim eşitliğe dayalı demokrasi talebi, aynı zamanda, egemenlik ilişkilerinin hiyerarşik yapılanmasına karşı bir direnişi de temsil eder. Bu kitaptaki her bir bölüm bu direnişe açılan yeni bir pencere olarak okunursa kitap amacına ulaşmış olacaktır». (editör) Eray Yağanak -/- Ülkemizin çeşitli üniversitelerinden on bir yazarın kaleme aldığı bu kitapta, (...) çağdaş felsefenin Mill, Nietzsche, Popper, Rawls, Habermas, Dworkin, Laclau, Mouffe, Badiou, Rancière ve Pettit gibi önemli figürlerinin demokrasi anlayışları incelenmektedir. (shrink)

David Hume’un Doğal Din Üzerine Diyaloglar kitabı, başlığının da ima ettiği gibi, vahiy metinlerine başvurmadan Tanrı’nın varlığına ve niteliklerine ulaşılıp ulaşılamayacağını araştıran bir metindir. Metin boyunca, felsefe tarihinde de gördüğümüz, iki ana yaklaşımı temsil eden iki temel argüman sunulur. Bunlardan ilki, a priori yaklaşımı temsil eden kozmolojik argümandır. Diğeri ise, a posteriori yaklaşımı temsi eden zeki tasarım argümanıdır. Bu yazıda, Hume’un, diyalogdaki Philo karakteri üzerinden ortaya koyduğu, kozmolojik argümana yönelik eleştirileri ele alınıp, böyle bir argümanın neden Tanrı’nın varlığı ve nitelikleri (...) konusunda bizi bir sonuca ulaştırmayacağı ortaya konmuştur. (shrink)

Bu çalışmada David Hume’un, insanların beğenileri arasında var olduğu açık bir şekilde görülen farklılıklara rağmen, beğeninin bir standardının bulunduğuna yönelik iddiası incelenecektir. Hume beğeni standardını, ilk kez, 1757 tarihinde yayımlanan Of the Standart of Taste başlıklı makalesinde ele alır. Hume’un söylediklerini tartışmalı hale getiren iki unsur vardır: Birincisi Hume gibi, deneyimden bilgi edinmenin en önemli olanaklarından biri olan tümevarımsal akıl yürütmenin temellerini sarsan bir eleştiri ortaya koyan deneyci bir filozofun, bir beğeni standardının var olduğunu iddia etmesidir, ikincisiyse, onun bu iddiasını (...) ortaya koyarken başvurduğu yolların tümevarımsal bir akıl yürütme içeriyor gibi görünmesidir. Bu nedenlerle, Hume’un beğeni standardıyla ilgili argümanlarını detaylı bir şekilde incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Ancak böylesi bir inceleme kapsamlı bir çalışmayı gerektirdiği için, bu inceleme iki aşama üzerinden gerçekleştirilmiştir. İncelemenin birinci aşaması, şu an karşınızda bulunan bu makale olup, burada Hume’un insanlar arasında beğeni farklılıkları olduğunu açıkça görmesine rağmen, nasıl olup da bir beğeni standardı olduğunu iddia ettiğini ele alınıyor. Hume’un bu beğeni standardının kaynağını nerede gördüğü; beğeni farklılıklarıyla bu standardı nasıl bağdaştırdığı; Hume’un beğeni standardının ortaya çıkmasını sağlayacaklarını iddia ettiği ideal eleştirmenlerin taşıması gerektiğini söylediği niteliklerin neler olduğu ve bunların Hume’un genel felsefi eğilimleriyle ilişkilerinin neler olduğu gibi konular bu makalede ele alınmamış olup, ayrı bir makale olarak sunulacaktır. (shrink)

Bu çalışma, David Hume’un beğeninin bir standardı olduğu iddiasına yönelik incelememin ikinci aşamasıdır. Böyle bir incelemeye başlamamın nedeni, çalışmanın birinci aşamasının başından da söylediğim gibi, açık bir şekilde görülen beğeni farklılıklarına rağmen, tümevarımsal akıl yürütmeyi eleştiren deneyci bir filozof olan David Hume’un beğeninin bir standardı olduğunu iddia etmesidir. Deneyci bir filozof olduğu için, Hume’un bu standardı a priori ya da doğuştan idelere dayandırma olanağı yoktur. Diğer taraftan, Hume, tümevarımsal akıl yürütmeyi eleştirerek, deneyimden tüm insanlar için bir ölçüt olabilecek kesinlikte bir (...) bilgi ya da standart üretmenin olanağını neredeyse tamamen ortadan kaldırmıştır. İncelemenin birinci aşaması olan “David Hume’un Beğeni Standardı I: Farklılıklar ve Standart” başlıklı makalede, Hume’un beğeni farklılıklarına rağmen nasıl olup da bir beğeni standardı olduğunu iddia ettiğini ele almıştım. İncelememin ikinci aşaması olan bu çalışmada ise, Hume’un beğeni standardının sanat eserlerinin bazı nitelikleriyle insan zihninin doğal yapısı arasındaki bir uyuşmadan kaynaklandığı iddiasını ve bu standardı belirli niteliklere sahip ideal eleştirmenler üzerinden nasıl açıkladığını ele alıp, Hume’un beğeni standardı tartışmasının genel bir değerlendirmesini yapacağım. (shrink)

Güç istenci öğretisi ve bu öğretinin temel kavramları olan yorum ve perspektivizm, Türkçe Nietzsche literatüründe ihmal edilen ya da yeterince ilgilenilmemiş konulardır. Ancak, bana göre, güç istenci öğretisi ve söz konusu kavramlar olmadan, Nietzsche’nin felsefesinin anlaşılma olanağı yoktur. Güç istenci öğretisi ve bu öğretinin ortaya koyduğu güç mücadelesi, karşımıza kaotik, sürekli değişimin yaşandığı bir evren çıkarmaktadır. Bu değişimin temel dinamiği güç mücadelesidir. Bu güç mücadelesi ise, güç odaklarının bu evrene ilişkin kendi perspektiflerinden oluşturdukları yorum üzerinden gerçekleşmektedir.

Bu makalede Søren Kierkegaard felsefesinin temel kavramlarından birisi olan ve yine bu felsefeye varoluşçu karakterini kazandıran tekil birey kavramını ele alıyorum. Kierkegaard, ilk bakışta epistemolojik bir ayrımmış gibi görünen, bu kavramı öznel ile nesnel hakikat arasında yaptığı ayrım üzerine temellendirir. Kierkegaard tekil bireye giden yolun nesnel hakikatten değil, öznel hakikatten geçtiğini ileri sürer. Tekil birey, Kierkegaard’ya göre, kendi yaşamının sorumluluğunu alabilen, kendi yaşamını şekillendiren değerleri seçebilen ve bu değerlerle nasıl ilişki kuracağını belirleyebilen bir bireydir. Ne var ki, Kierkegaard’ya göre, tekil (...) birey olmak o kadar da kolay bir iş değildir. Tekil birey olabilmek için insanın nesnel hakikatin güvenilir alanını terk edip, varoluşunu öznel hakikatin belirsizliğine teslim etmesi gerekir. Bu belirsizliği göze almadığında, insanın kendine ait bir yaşam sürmesi ve kendisi olarak varolmasının olanağı yoktur. (shrink)

-/- Nietzsche’nin doğruluk ve bilgi hakkındaki görüşleri onun felsefesinin en fazla karanlıkta kalmış bölümüdür. Bunun bir nedeni, onun bu görüşlerinin yayımlanmış eserleri ve yayımlanmamış notlarında dağınık bir şekilde bulunmasıdır. Aynı zamanda, Nietzsche’ye göre doğruluk ve bilginin ne anlama geldiğini anlamak için onun güç istenci ve perspektivizm teorilerine de nüfûz etmek gerekir. -/- Birbirine çok sıkı bir şekilde bağlı olan bu kavram ve teorilerden oluşan yapı anlaşıldığında Nietzsche felsefesinin bütününe ilişkin pek çok yanlış anlaşılma ve çarpıtma daha açık bir şekilde gün (...) yüzüne çıkar. Bu nedenle, bu kitap yalnızca felsefeciler için değil, Nietzsche’yi anlamak isteyen tüm okurlar için yararlı bir inceleme niteliğini taşımaktadır. (shrink)

Cambridge’deki büyük akademik cemaatin sakinleri olan bizler bir araya geldik ve hoşgörü ve onun egemen politik iklim içerisindeki yeri hakkında dostça ama ateşli bir tartışma yürüttük. Okuyucu, bizim nerelerde aynı düşüncede olmadığımızı bulmakta hiçbir zorluk çekmeyecektir. Diğer taraftan, farklı başlangıç noktalarından ve farklı yollardan hareketle yaklaşık olarak aynı yere ulaştık. Her birimiz için, egemen hoşgörü kuramı ve pratiğinin, incelendiği takdirde, korkunç politik gerçekleri gizlemeye yarayan bir maske olduğu ortaya çıktı. Kızgınlığın tonu makaleden makaleye keskin bir şekilde artmakta; belki de boş (...) yere, okuyucuların bu noktaya getiren akıl yürütmeyi takip edeceklerini umuyoruz. Nihayetinde bu kızgınlık hem kafa hem de kalpte ikamet etmektedir…. (shrink)

Frankfurt Okulu'nun kurucu üyelerinden ve 20. yüzyıl eleştirel düşünce dünyasının köşe taşlarından biri olan Herbert Marcuse'nin 1969 yılında, bütün dünyanın halk ayaklanmalarıyla ve toplumsal hareketlerle çalkalandığı sıcak günlerde yayımlanan kitabı Özgürlük Üzerine Bir Deneme ele aldığı konuları ve tespitleriyle günümüzde de önemini koruyor. Bu kısa ama çarpıcı makale, Sol'un teorik ve pratik yeniden inşası ve eleştirel düşüncenin doğru mecralarda ilerleyişinin sağlanması açısından mutlaka okunması ve derinlemesine irdelenip tartışılması gereken eserlerin başında gelir. İleri endüstri toplumuyla rekabete giren sosyalist blok, bu rekabetin (...) bir sonucu olarak, kendi hedeflerinden saparak rekabet ettiği sistemin değerlerinin egemen olduğu bir sisteme kaymıştır. Bu kayma, Marcuse'ye göre, geleneksel özgürlük anlayışını geçersiz kılmıştır. Artık, insanların gereksinimleri özgürce kendileri tarafından geliştirilmediği için, “herkesten yeteneğine göre, herkese gereksinimine göre” ilkesinin işe yaramayacağı bir aşamadayız. Öyle ki, kendilerinin özgürce geliştirdikleri gereksinimlere sahip olmadıkları sürece, üretim araçlarının işçiler tarafından sahiplenildiği durumda bile, toplum baskıcı bir toplum olabilir. Dolayısıyla, özgürlüğünün olanakları başka yerlerde aramak gerekir. Marcuse de, Özgürlük Üzerine Bir Deneme kitabında, bu yeni durum içerisinde özgürlüğün yeni olanaklarını aramaktadır. (shrink)

Theodor W. Adorno, İkinci Dünya Savaşı sonrası dönemin önde gelen filozof ve toplum kuramcılarından biridir. Eleştirel Kuramın gelişmesinde önemli rolü olan, özgün ve de genellikle zor olan yazıları sadece temel felsefi sorular ileri sürmekle kalmayıp aynı zamanda edebiyat, sanat, müzik, sosyoloji ve siyaset kuramına ilişkin derin analizler de sunar. Bu kapsamlı kitapta Brian O’Connor, Adorno’nun felsefesini, onun eserleriyle ilk kez karşılaşanlara açıklamaktadır. O’Connor, bu amaçla, yaşamı ve entelektüel çevresinin bağlamını oluşturan ana felsefi görüşleri aracılığıyla Adorno felsefesinin merkezi unsurlarını değerlendiriyor. Bu (...) bağlamda Aydınlanmanın diyalektiği, şeyleşme, bütünsellik, dolayımlama, özdeşlik, özdeşsizlik, deneyim, negatif diyalektik, içkinlik, özgürlük, özerklik ve sanatta taklit gibi kavramları, felsefesinin temel alanları üzerinden tartışıyor. Kronoloji ve terimler sözlüğünün yanı sıra ek okuma önerileri de içeren Adorno, felsefe, edebiyat, sosyoloji ve kültürel çalışmalarla ilgilenenler için ideal bir giriş kitabı... (shrink)

Felsefedeki normal dönemler felsefenin belirlenmiş ve uzlaşılmış bir tanımının olduğu filozofların kendi disiplinlerinin ve onun içerdiği görevlerin doğası hakkında genel bir mutabakata sahip oldukları zamanlardır Devrimci zamanlar ise böyle bir tanımın olmadığı felsefeye ilişkin çelişen kavramsallaştırmaların olduğu zamanlardır Bu tanımlara göre geç on sekizinci erken on dokuzuncu ve geç yirminci yüzyıllar normal zamanlardı Bununla birlikte on dokuzuncu yüzyılın ikinci yarısı devrimciydi Çünkü bu dönem belirlenmiş ya da uzlaşılmış bir felsefe tanımının olmadığı disipline ilişkin çelişik birçok kavramsallaştırmanın olduğu bir dönemdi Filozoflar (...) kendilerine kendi disiplinleriyle ilgili en temel soruları sordular Felsefe nedir Ampirik bilimlerden nasıl farklılaşır Neden felsefe yapmalıyız İdealizm çağının Hegelin ölümüyle sona ermesinden sonra on dokuzuncu yüzyılın ikinci yarısındaki Alman felsefesinin bir gerileme ve durgunluk dönemine girdiğini iddia eden hakim görüşe karşı Frederick Beiser döneme has anlaşmazlık ve çatışma ortamının yüzyılın ikinci yarısını ilk yarısından daha ilginç kıldığını somut örneklerle gözler önüne seriyor Elinizdeki kitap açık ve canlı bir üslupla yazılmış Hegel sonrası Alman felsefesine dair her düzeyden okur için temel bir kaynak",. (shrink)

This study presents an exploration of the belief changes of prospective teachers through social co-constructivist teaching. The future presumed in-class teaching orientations of the PTs were also estimated by metaphor analysis. A case study was conducted to monitor the belief changes of the PTs and estimate their probable in-class practices. The participants were six PTs involved in a certification in education programme. The data were gathered from the following different sources; interviews, written reflections and metaphor explanations. The data that were (...) analysed interpretatively and specific parts of the analysed data were subjected to quantification. The PTs held considerably conventional and idealistic teaching beliefs prior to the implementations. The PTs improved their reasoning and enlarged their conceptualisations regarding teaching and learning after the implementations. Five types of teaching belief typologies displaying inherently sophisticated nature of the beliefs were extracted. Some of the PTs appeared to have promise in terms of implementing more learner-centred teaching; however, others preserved their traditional teaching practical orientations. It was considered that changes in teaching beliefs may have motivational and attitudinal dimensions. Finally, capturing the metaphors of the PTs regarding teaching and learning appeared to provide more realistic insights into the estimated in-class practical orientations. (shrink)

The Moroccan philosopher Taha Abderrahmane is one of the leading surviving philosophers of the Arab-Islamic world. His fields of study are issues such as logic, philosophy of language, moral philosophy and political theology. He built a holistic and versatile Islamic methodology in his works and formed a world of thought on the axis of trusteeship (divine contract and trust paradigm) and circulation tedavuliyya (pragmatic-word-action theory). Taha Abderrahmane has analyzed, criticized and constructed the Islamic thought tradition, which he handled with a (...) holistic view, with a versatile reference network. In addition, one of his most important contributions is that he put forward a moral philosophy in the Qurʾānic and prophetic axis. Taha Abderrahmane proved to be a prolific thinker with his thirty-five work consisting of ten thousand pages. He proposes a deliberative model of political communication in harmony with his theo-political writings and physical and metaphysical integrity. While this article aim to provide information on the main components of Abderrahmane’s paradigm of divine contract and trusteeship (i’timaniyya), essentially a theory of morality, such as political theology, linguistics, and negotiation ethics, it also tries to identify the Western references of these elements. In this context how the theory of speech acts that seems quite important in the field of modern social sciences and created by theorists such as John Searl and Austin was transformed by Taha Abderrahmane into an Islamic theory of speech is also subject to a comparative assessment. In addition, the possibility of the issue of negotiation ethics, which gained more importance with new communication theories in the West, in the axis of Islamic thought was questioned in the article. The article reviews how views on negotiation ethics are positioned by Taha Abderrahmane within the Islamic paradigm. Therefore, the article is limited in scope to Taha Abderrahmane’s references about the theories in the West. Taha Abderrahmane attempts to construct an Islamic Pragmatic or Islamic Theory of Verbal Action, with reference to Pragmatics or Theory of Speech Acts, which is a sub-branch of linguistics, but in line with principles specific to the Islamic paradigm. Taha Abderrahmane combined the Islamic concept of pragmatic with the concept of negotiation. The terms “praxis” and “praxeology [fiqh al falsafa]”, which define the framework of the Trust Paradigm and the Islamic Pragmatic Model proposed by Taha Abderrahmane, emphasize “deed” or, in other words, “action” and he is linguistically referencing the founding masters of the pragmatics field such as J. L. Austin and J. R. Searle. However, there are two other fields that constitute the main reference to his concept of praxis (action) and praxeology (action science). These are economics and philosophy. Praxeology is a scientific field that deserves to be mentioned especially with the economist Ludwig von Mises (1881-1973). According to Mises, the laws of the field about which physics, biology, and praxeology [mainly economics] provide information, are independent of human will. These are primary ontological facts that strictly limit the human power to act (Mises, 1998, 67). Taha Abderrahmane references western thinkers such as Ludwig von Mises, Jürgen Habermas, Chantal Mouffe and Hannah Arendt, as well as Islamic sources. However, the way he makes use of them takes place within the framework of criticism and analysis. He also refers to other personalities such as Jonas, Freud, Ellul, Putnam, Ricoeur and Rawls. While Taha Abderrahmane explains the process of turning words into action, he also draws on the Action Theory of Hannah Arendt (1906-1975), who was one of the children of Heidegger, such as Karl Löwith, Hans Jonas and Herbert Marcuse, and who was accepted as a real philosopher even though he rejected the title of philosopher during his lifetime. On the other hand, Taha Abderrahmane makes strong references to the basic dimension of Islam, such as “O believers! If you avoid opposing Allah; It gives you an understanding to distinguish good from bad (Al-Anfal, 8/29)” verse. He makes strong references to the supposed dimension of Islam, and in this context, he tries to create a praxis based on nature, especially based on the hadith known as nawāfil hadith. (shrink)

This study had two purposes: to explore the components of the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of an experienced elementary science teacher and to reveal the presumed interactions among these components. A naturalistic inquiry was conducted as a single case study in which in-depth qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interview questions. After the theory-based and data-driven analysis of the qualitative data, the verbal communication was quantitated into numerical data for the enumerative analysis. The results revealed that the teacher’s knowledge of (...) students’ understanding and difficulties, knowledge of the elementary science curriculum and knowledge of instructional strategies and representations were found to be mostly intersected PCK components, whereas orientations towards teaching science and knowledge of assessment in science had limited connections to the other components. Further discussions and context-based suggestions are given regarding professional development programmes. (shrink)

The problem of the origin of religious sciences has been discussed by both Islamic scholars and orientalists from sectarian, cultural, social and many different aspects. Sufism is one of the main sciences that are the subject of these discussions in terms of its source. Some Western researchers; they regarded the religion of Islam as inadequate in the face of the complexity of sufism. They claimed that the science of sufism was inspired by different religions and traditions such as Christianity Gnosticism, (...) Buddhism, Persian and Indian. Another discussion on the origin problem of sufism is that it is of Shia origin. Some early sufis have been scrutinized on the aforementioned issues due to their social environment and teachings. The scope of the study will be created specifically for Ma‘rūf al-Karkhī. The relevant issue will be evaluated from this aspect. Because Ma'rûf attracts attention as an extremely important sufi because he is at the center of the science of sufism. As a matter of fact, Sarī al-Saqaṭī, who is the first person to mention states and authorities in the records, states that he acquired all his knowledge through Ma'rûf. Sarī, on the other hand, influenced Junayd because he was the uncle and teacher of Junayd, known as "seyyidü't-taife". Therefore, the life and teachings of Ma'rûf have spread to the foundation of sufism. Besides, it has made him a shareholder in the formation of the theoretical background of sufism. Ma'rûf's reconciliation of Sufism with truths can be considered as an example. The subject of the article is the sufi life of Ma‘rūf al-Karkhī, who is at the center of these discussions, and his role in the origin of sufism because his family is a member of the Sâbiî or Christianity religion and he is a Muslim at the hands of Imam Alī al-Riḍā. Ma'rûf is in contact with other religions because of his family. In addition, he is in close contact with Alī al-Riḍā in the chain of isnad, which includes seven imams, whom Shiite circles call "golden circle". Therefore, the fact that he is one of the leading figures in the history of sufism increases the importance of the subject in his eyes. Therefore, while the life of Ma'rûf will be examined through the history of sufism, the history of sufism will be mentioned from the specificity of Ma'rûf. Because, in contrast to the normative sciences, the sufi field is dominated by the experiences and teachings of the sufis. (shrink)

The problem of the origin of religious sciences has been discussed by both Islamic scholars and orientalists from sectarian, cultural, social and many different aspects. Sufism is one of the main sciences that are the subject of these discussions in terms of its source. Some Western researchers; they regarded the religion of Islam as inadequate in the face of the complexity of sufism. They claimed that the science of sufism was inspired by different religions and traditions such as Christianity Gnosticism, (...) Buddhism, Persian and Indian. Another discussion on the origin problem of sufism is that it is of Shia origin. Some early sufis have been scrutinized on the aforementioned issues due to their social environment and teachings. The scope of the study will be created specifically for Ma‘rūf al-Karkhī (d. 200/815). The relevant issue will be evaluated from this aspect. Because Ma'rûf attracts attention as an extremely important sufi because he is at the center of the science of sufism. As a matter of fact, Sarī al-Saqaṭī, who is the first person to mention states and authorities in the records, states that he acquired all his knowledge through Ma'rûf. Sarī, on the other hand, influenced Junayd because he was the uncle and teacher of Junayd, known as "seyyidü't-taife". Therefore, the life and teachings of Ma'rûf have spread to the foundation of sufism. Besides, it has made him a shareholder in the formation of the theoretical background of sufism. Ma'rûf's reconciliation of Sufism with truths can be considered as an example. The subject of the article is the sufi life of Ma‘rūf al-Karkhī, who is at the center of these discussions, and his role in the origin of sufism because his family is a member of the Sâbiî or Christianity religion and he is a Muslim at the hands of Imam Alī al-Riḍā (d. 203/819). Ma'rûf is in contact with other religions because of his family. In addition, he is in close contact with Alī al-Riḍā in the chain of isnad, which includes seven imams, whom Shiite circles call "golden circle". Therefore, the fact that he is one of the leading figures in the history of sufism increases the importance of the subject in his eyes. Therefore, while the life of Ma'rûf will be examined through the history of sufism, the history of sufism will be mentioned from the specificity of Ma'rûf. Because, in contrast to the normative sciences, the sufi field is dominated by the experiences and teachings of the sufis. (shrink)

In this paper, I defend the metalinguistic solution to the problem of mathematical omniscience for the possible-worlds account of propositions by combining it with a computational model of knowledge and belief. The metalinguistic solution states that the objects of belief and ignorance in mathematics are relations between mathematical sentences and what they express. The most pressing problem for the metalinguistic strategy is that it still ascribes too much mathematical knowledge under the standard possible-worlds model of knowledge and belief on which (...) these are closed under entailment. I first argue that Stalnaker's fragmentation strategy is insufficient to solve this problem. I then develop an alternative, computational strategy: I propose a model of mathematical knowledge and belief adapted from the algorithmic model of Halpern et al. which, when combined with the metalinguistic strategy, entails that mathematical knowledge and belief require computational abilities to access metalinguistic information, and thus aren't closed under entailment. As I explain, the computational model generalizes beyond mathematics to a version of the functionalist theory of knowledge and belief that motivates the possible-worlds account in the first place. I conclude that the metalinguistic and computational strategies yield an attractive functionalist, possible-worlds account of mathematical content, knowledge, and inquiry. (shrink)

In this paper, I argue from a metasemantic principle to the existence of analytic sentences. According to the metasemantic principle, an external feature is relevant to determining which concept one expresses with an expression only if one is disposed to treat this feature as relevant. This entails that if one isn’t disposed to treat external features as relevant to determining which concept one expresses, and one still expresses a given concept, then something other than external features must determine that one (...) does. I argue that, in such cases, what determines that one expresses the concept also puts one in a position to know that certain sentences are true—these sentences are thus analytic relative to this determination basis. Finally, I argue that there are such cases: some sentences are analytic relative to what determines that we express certain key concepts, and these sentences include ones that have always been thought to be the best candidates for being analytic, namely, stipulative truths, and first principles of mathematics. (shrink)

In this paper, I introduce and defend a notion of analyticity for formal languages. I first uncover a crucial flaw in Timothy Williamson’s famous argument template against analyticity, when it is applied to sentences of formal mathematical languages. Williamson’s argument targets the popular idea that a necessary condition for analyticity is that whoever understands an analytic sentence assents to it. Williamson argues that for any given candidate analytic sentence, there can be people who understand that sentence and yet who fail (...) to assent to it. I argue that, on the most natural understanding of the notion of assent when it is applied to sentences of formal mathematical languages, Williamson’s argument fails. Formal analyticity is the notion of analyticity that is based on this natural understanding of assent. I go on to develop the notion of formal analyticity and defend the claim that there are formally analytic sentences and rules of inference. I conclude by showing the potential payoffs of recognizing formal analyticity. (shrink)

This essay argues that, with his much-maligned “infinite analysis” theory of contingency, Leibniz is onto something deep and important – a tangle of issues that wouldn’t be sorted out properly for centuries to come, and then only by some of the greatest minds of the twentieth century. The first two sections place Leibniz’s theory in its proper historical context and draw a distinction between Leibniz’s logical and meta-logical discoveries. The third section argues that Leibniz’s logical insights initially make his “infinite (...) analysis” theory of contingency more rather than less perplexing. The last two sections argue that Leibniz’s meta-logical insights, however, point the way towards a better appreciation of (what we should regard as) his formal theory of contingency, and its correlative, his formal theory of necessity. (shrink)

AimThis study aims to translate the Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales into Turkish and to test their subsequent validity, reliability, and psychometric properties. Turkey is one of the blended cultures with eastern and western elements under the influence of traditional religion. This cultural diversity brings about a rich context to study compassion and its relationship to mental health. The scales assess the ability to be sensitive to suffering and engage and then take helpful actions in compassion. The motivation for compassionate (...) engagement and action is measured at three ‘flows’ as follows: compassion for others; compassion from others; and compassion for self.MethodsThe sample consists of 525 college students aged 18 years or older. The participants completed the CEAS Turkish Form for Others, Self and from Others, Self-Compassion Scale Short Form, Compassionate Love Scale, and Self-Criticism Scale.ResultsThe confirmatory factor analyses were conducted using AMOS version 27 to examine the validity of the three scales with two different factor structures each. All the three models show good fits to the data. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the CEAS for Others and for Self and from Others are good to excellent. Compassion for self, compassion for others, and compassion from others correlated modestly.ConclusionIt can be concluded that the Turkish version of the Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales for Others and Self and from Others has sufficient psychometric properties and can be used as a reliable and valid measure to assess compassionate engagement and action. (shrink)

According to the iterative conception of sets, standardly formalized by ZFC, there is no set of all sets. But why is there no set of all sets? A simple-minded, though unpopular, “minimal” explanation for why there is no set of all sets is that the supposition that there is contradicts some axioms of ZFC. In this paper, I first explain the core complaint against the minimal explanation, and then argue against the two main alternative answers to the guiding question. I (...) conclude the paper by outlining a close alternative to the minimal explanation, the conception-based explanation, that avoids the core complaint against the minimal explanation. (shrink)

In this paper, we offer a novel defense of descriptivism about reference. Our argument is based on principles about the relevance of speaker intentions to reference that are shared by many opponents of descriptivism, including Saul Kripke. We first show that two such principles that are plausibly endorsed by Kripke and other prominent externalists in fact entail descriptivism. The first principle states that when certain kinds of speaker intentions are present, they suffice to determine and explain reference. According to the (...) second principle, certain speaker intentions must be present whenever something determines or explains reference. We then go on to make these principles more precise and argue that it would be costly to deny either of them. Since on the more precise understanding we suggest, the conjunction of these principles still entails descriptivism, we conclude that opponents of descriptivism have to give up some highly plausible assumption about the relation between speaker intentions and reference. (shrink)

This is a review article of Texte von Büyükkale aus den Jahren 1957–2002. By Heinrich Otten; Christel Rüster; and Gernot Wilhelm. Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi, vol. 47. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 2005. Pp. xix + 58, illus. €27.

In this paper, I develop an algorithmic impossible-worlds model of belief and knowledge that provides a middle ground between models that entail that everyone is logically omniscient and those that are compatible with even the most egregious kinds of logical incompetence. In outline, the model entails that an agent believes (knows) φ just in case she can easily (and correctly) compute that φ is true and thus has the capacity to make her actions depend on whether φ. The model thereby (...) captures the standard view that belief and knowledge ground are constitutively connected to dispositions to act. As I explain, the model improves upon standard algorithmic models developed by Parikh, Halpern, Moses, Vardi, and Duc, among other ways, by integrating them into an impossible-worlds framework. The model also avoids some important disadvantages of recent candidate middle-ground models based on dynamic epistemic logic or step logic, and it can subsume their most important advantages. (shrink)

In order to fulfill their role in society, professional journalists must deliver truths. But truth-telling is not the only requirement of the goal of journalism. What is more, some of the other requirements of journalism can make it difficult for journalists to deliver truths, and may even force them to depart from truth in certain ways. In this paper, I make the requirements of the goal of journalism explicit, and I explain how conflicts between them can arise. I then make (...) some suggestions for balancing these requirements that could help journalists regain the trust of the public. (shrink)

Putnam’s model-theoretic arguments for the indeterminacy of reference have been taken to pose a special problem for mathematical languages. In this paper, I argue that if one accepts that there are theory-external constraints on the reference of at least some expressions of ordinary language, then Putnam’s model-theoretic arguments for mathematical languages don’t go through. In particular, I argue for a kind of descriptivism about mathematical expressions according to which their reference is “anchored” in the reference of expressions of ordinary language. (...) These anchors add enough to the content of mathematical expressions to forestall the radical kind of indeterminacy that model-theoretic arguments are purported to show, while still leaving room for a plausible, moderate kind of indeterminacy. (shrink)

This essay develops our meta-logical interpretation of Leibniz’s formal theory of contingency by taking up two additional issues not fully addressed in our earlier efforts. The first issue concerns the relationship between Leibniz’s formal theory of contingency and his views on species and essentialism. The second issue concerns the relationship between Leibniz’s formal theory of contingency and the modal status of the actual world.

Remarks on the reading and interpretation of recently published cuneiform frag- ments from the Hittite capital Boğazköy/Ḫattuša.

Chalmers has argued that Bayesianism supports the existence of a priori truths, since it entails that scrutability conditionals are not rationally revisable. However, as we argue, Chalmers's arguments leave open that every proposition is rationally deniable, which would be devastating for large parts of his philosophical program. We suggest that Chalmers should appeal to well-known convergence theorems to argue that ideally rational subjects converge on the truth of scrutability conditionals. However, our discussion reveals that showing that these theorems apply in (...) effect requires assuming scrutability. Consequently, Bayesianism doesn't conflict with Chalmers's scrutability framework, but it doesn't support it, either. (shrink)