The controversy between the medical schools of Paris and Montpellier extends roughly from the death of Barthez (1806) to the publication of the Introduction to the study of experimental medicine of Claude Bernard (1865), with a peak during which the controversy merges with the polemic between Louis Peisse and Jacques Lordat (1840-1843). This study aims to document as accurately as possible the arguments that were exchanged during this controversy, by seeking their reasons and explaining how the experimental medicine in Paris (...) ultimately took the lead over the vitalism championed by the school of medicine in Montpellier. (shrink)

This book explores the interrelationships between optics, vision and perspective before the Classical Age, examining binocularity in particular. The author shows how binocular vision was one of the key juncture points between the three concepts and readers will see how important it is to understand the approach that scholars once took. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the concept of Perspectiva – the Latin word for optics – encompassed many areas of enquiry that had been viewed since antiquity as (...) interconnected, but which a erwards were separated: optics was incorporated into the field of physics (i.e., physical and geometrical optics), vision came to be regarded as the sum of various psycho-physiological mechanisms involved in the way the eye operates (i.e., physiological optics and psychology of vision) and the word ‘perspective’ was reserved for the mathematical representation of the external world (i.e., linear perspective). The author shows how this division, which emerged as a result of the spread of the sciences in classical Europe, turns out to be an anachronism if we confront certain facts from the immediately preceding periods. It is essential to take into account the way medieval scholars posed the problem – which included all facets of the Latin word perspectiva – when exploring the events of this period. (shrink)

A (critical) review of Hans Belting's essay.

In this article, we publish the critical edition of Andalò di Negro’s De compositione astrolabii, with English translation and commentary. The mathematician and astronomer Andalò di Negro presumably redacted this treatise on the astrolabe in the 1330s, while residing at the court of King Robert of Naples. The present edition has three purposes: first, to make available a text missing from the previous compilations of works by Andalò di Negro; second, to revise a privately circulated edition of the text; and (...) third, to help disseminating one of the rare Latin texts presenting the principles of the stereographic projection which underlie the construction of the astrolabe. (shrink)

In Résolution des quatre principaux problèmes d’architecture (1673) then in Cours d’architecture (1683), the architect–mathematician Nicolas-François Blondel addresses one of the most famous architectural problems of all times, that of the reduction in columns (entasis). The interest of the text lies in the variety of subjects that are linked to this issue. (1) The text is a response to the challenge launched by Curabelle in 1664 under the name Étrenne à tous les architectes; (2) Blondel mathematicizes the problem in the (...) “style of the Ancients”; (3) The problem is reformulated and solved through the continuous drawing of the curve; (4) Blondel refutes the uniqueness of the curve by enumerating a variety of solutions (conchoid, spiral, parabola, ellipse, circle, hyperbola). This exuberance responds to an intention that does not coincide with the state of the art of mathematics at the end of the seventeenth century, nor with the taste for geometry of the Ancients, nor with any pedagogical project. This feature is explained by Blondel’s plan to found architecture on scientific bases. The reasons for his failure are analysed. (shrink)

The perfect compass, used by al-Qūhī, al-Sijzī and his successors for the continuous drawing of conic sections, reappeared after a long eclipse in the works of Renaissance mathematicians like Francesco Barozzi in Venice. The resurgence of this instrument seems to have depended on its interest to solve new optico-perspective problems. Having reviewed the various instruments designed for the drawing of conic sections, the article is focused on the sole conic compass. Theoretical and empirical applications are detailed. Contrarily to the common (...) thesis of an independant discovery, various elements suggest a direct descent between the birkār al-tāmm of the Arabic mathematical tradition and the Italian conic compass. Then we present the most probable transmission hypothesis involving: 1° Ibn Yūnus and his disciples of Mosul, 2° Sultan Malik al-Kāmil in Damas, 3° Master Theodore and Frederick II at the court of Sicily, 4° Andalò di Negro and Robert of Anjou in Naples, 5° Lorenzo della Volpaia, Vinci, Sangallo and Michelangelo in Florence, 6° Ausonio, Contarini, Thiene and Francesco Barozzi in Venice. (shrink)

This article studies a fragment on the conic sections that appear in the Codex Atlanticus, fols. 611rb/915ra. Arguments are put forward to assemble these two folios. Their comparison with the Latin texts available before 1500 shows that they derive from the De speculis comburentibus of Alhacen and the De speculis comburentibus of Regiomontanus, joined together in his autograph manuscript. Having identified the sources, and discussed their mathematics, the issue of their transmission is targeted. It is shown that these notes were (...) written by Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, through whom they reached the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. (shrink)

The concept of aerial perspective has been used for the first time by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). This article studies its dependence on Ptolemy’s Optica and overall on the optical tradition inaugurated by Ibn al-Haytham’s Kitāb al-Manāẓir (d. after 1040). This treatise, that was accessible through several Latin and Italian manuscripts, and was the source of many Medieval commentaries, offers a general theory of visual perception emancipated from the case of the moon illusion, in which physical and psychological factors are (...) closely combined. Atmospheric extinction (not refraction, which it is sometimes confused with) affects the conjectured size of remote objects. This phenomenon is also the core source for a pictorial rendering of depth, that is based onto a principle different from the diminution of size. (shrink)

In the Quattrocento and Cinquecento the rise of linear perspective caused many polemics which opposed the supporters of an artificial geometrisation of sight to those who were praising the qualities of the drawing according to nature, or were invoking some arguments on a physiological basis. These debates can be grouped according to the four alternatives that form their central concerns: restricted vs. broad field of vision; ocular immobility vs. mobility; curvilinear vs. planar picture; monocular vs. binocular vision. By retaining the (...) first terms of these four alternatives, the history of perspective eliminated many heterodox constructions. From the viewpoint of mathematisation the interest of these debates is that they succeeded, rather than preceded, the adoption of a perspective system defined by the intersection of the visual pyramid. Thus the history of linear perspective constitutes a genuine case of a posteriori justification, or, put differently, it gives us a case of upside down mathematisation. (shrink)

Contemporary sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) is defined by its relativist trend. Its programme often calls for the support of philosophers, such as Duhem, Quine, and Wittgenstein. A critical re-reading of key texts shows that the main principles of relativism are only derivable with difficulty. The thesis of the underdetermination of theory doesn't forbid that Duhem, in many places, validates a correspondence-consistency theory of truth. He never said that social beliefs and interests fill the lack of underdetermination. Quine's idea of (...) a selective revision of hypotheses, as well as the neat incompatibility between holism and conventionalism, openly challenges the principles of relativism. Wittgenstein's work, which is not presented in book-form but rather as a tree, forces us to avoid aphoristic choices that credit any text-excising. This remark allows us to tackle the passages that sociological relativism is based on.Mathematical conventions are not anthropological objects. When Wittgenstein examines the "language-games," he only speaks of the functioning of natural language, not to be confused with scientific formal languages. We then should render the formula "language-game" by "well-defined, explicit and compulsory rules of communication", which is a much less attractive formula for relativism. Consequently, there does not exist a real continuity between the epistemologies of Duhem, Quine and Wittgenstein, and the recent works of the SSK. (shrink)

The modern physiological optics introduces the notions related to the conditions of fusion of bi- nocular images by the concept of correspondence, due to Christiaan Huygens (1704), and by an experiment attri- buted to Christoph Scheiner (1619). The conceptualization of this experiment dates, in fact, back to Ptolemy (90- 168) and Ibn al-Haytham (d. af. 1040). The present paper surveys Ibn al-Haytham's knowledge about the mecha- nisms of binocular vision. The article subsequently explains why Ibn al-Haytham, a mathematician, but here (...) an experimenter, did not give the circular figure of the theoretical horopter, construction due to Gerhard Vieth (1818) and Johannes Müller (1826). But, on the other hand, it is clear that Ibn al-Haytham's experimental study puts in place the notion of corresponding points, the cases of homonymous and cross diplopia, and even prepares the discovery of Panum area. L'optique physiologique moderne introduit les notions relatives aux conditions de fusion des images binoculaires par le concept de correspondance, prêté à Christiaan Huygens (1704), et par une expérience attribuée à Christoph Scheiner (1619). L'article montre que la conceptualisation de l'expérience remonte en fait à Ptolémée (90-168) et à Ibn al-Haytham (m. ap. 1040), et précise les connaissances que ce dernier avait des mécanismes de la vision binoculaire. Il est ensuite expliqué pourquoi Ibn al-Haytham, mathématicien mais ici expérimentateur, ne donne pas la forme circulaire de l'horoptère théorique, dont la construction revient à Gerhard Vieth (1818) et Johannes Müller (1826). En revanche, l'étude expérimentale d'Ibn al-Haytham met en place la notion de points correspondants, les cas de diplopie homonyme et croisée et prépare même la découverte de l'aire fusionnelle de Panum. (shrink)

Le regain actuel de la sociologie de l'art semble lié à un essai de constitution d'un programme de 'sociologie des œuvres', différencié de la classique sociologie de la production et de la réception artistiques. Ce programme, épigone des théories de la communication, fait l'hypothèse de codes iconiques et plastiques. L'étude des interprétations des rayures de D. Buren et de la pyramide du Grand Louvre de I. M. Pei invalide l'existence de tels codes. La grande variabilité des interprétations est alors expliquée (...) dans le cadre du modèle inférentiel avancé par Sperber et Wilson (1989). L'absence de code et le caractère auto-réfutant de certaines propositions met en doute les chances de succès de ce programme de recherche. (shrink)

L'essor de la perspective linéaire a suscité de nombreuses polémiques tout au long du Quattrocento et du Cinquecento, opposant les partisans d'une géométrisation artificialiste de la vision à ceux qui vantaient les qualités du dessin d'après nature ou invoquaient des arguments de nature physiologique. Ces débats peuvent être retracés à partir des quatre alternatives qui en constituent le noyau dur : champ de vision restreint vs. large ; immobilité vs. mobilité oculaire ; tableau plan vs. curviligne ; vision monoculaire vs. (...) binoculaire. En retenant les premiers termes de ces quatre alternatives, l'histoire de la perspective a rejeté de nombreux systèmes hétérodoxes. Du point de vue de la mathématisation, l'intérêt de ces débats tient à ce qu'ils ont succédé, et non précédé, l'adoption du dispositif perspectif comme intersection de la pyramide visuelle. L'histoire de la perspective linéaire offre ainsi un authentique cas de justification a posteriori des fondements ou, pour ainsi dire, de mathématisation à rebours. (shrink)

Unlike the physical sciences, sociology is frequently described as an interpretative non-experimental science. Comparative epistemology sheds new light on this claim. 1. Experimentation is not a constant character of the physical sciences; 2. Experimental hypothetical-deductive reasoning, including the test of predictions, is also practicable in sociology. The argument is developed by a detailed step-wise comparison of the prediction of light ray deviation within the Sun’s gravitational field made in 1919 (physics) and the prediction of 8% cosmopolitanism of Cambridge University between (...) 1250 and 1350 (sociology). Extensive analysis of regent masters’ prosopographic notes yields the result of 9.5 percent cosmopolitanism, which is close to the theoretical prediction. Au contraire des sciences physiques, la sociologie est souvent décrite comme une science interprétative et non-expérimentale. L’épistémologie apporte un éclairage nouveau sur cette position : 1) L’expérimentation n’est pas un trait constant des sciences physiques ; 2) Le raisonnement expérimental est également applicable en sociologie. L’argument est développé en comparant en détail le test de la prédiction d’une déviation des rayons lumineux dans un champ de gravitation effectué en 1919 et le test de la prédiction d’un taux de cosmopolitisme de 8 % de l’université de Cambridge dans la période 1250-1350. Le dépouillement des notices prosopographiques des maîtres régents donne un résultat de 9,5 % proche de la prédiction théorique initiale. (shrink)

This article is a study of geometric constructions. We consider, as an illustration, the methods used for dividing the straight line into n equal parts (n-section). Architects and practicioners of classical Europe had at their disposal a broad range of geometric constructions: ancient ones were edited and translated, whereas new solutions were constantly published. The wide variety and reasons for selection of these geometric constructions are puzzling: the most widespread construction was not the simplest one. This article wonders why so (...) many constructions were used to solve the same problem and why tedious methods were used. It is argued that the practical conditions and scale at which the problem was tackled could account for such diversity. (shrink)

A comparison of the manuscripts has shown that De li aspecti, the Italian version of Alhacen's De aspectibus, Vat. lat. 4595 (I), was copied from London, British Library, Royal 12 G vii (L). The discovery of long omissions in L, not reproduced in I, disproves this conclusion. The error has two reasons: a sampling too small, the confusion between phenetic and cladistic approaches.

Brisant l’image idéale de la science consensuelle, les controverses scientifiques sont aujourd’hui devenues un sujet privilégié de la sociologie et de l’histoire des sciences. Elles sont par ailleurs impliquées au cœur des débats sur les méthodes des sciences sociales. Si l’analyse des controverses scientifiques doit beaucoup aux approches inaugurées par les courants relativistes et constructivistes des années 1970-1980, ce livre montre que les études contemporaines ont tout à gagner à réintroduire ce qui a été le principal tabou des trente dernières (...) années: la vérité. Cette conclusion n’est pas le résultat d’une méditation abstraite sur le destin de la sociologie et de l’histoire des sciences. C’est le résultat d’études de cas, portant sur des disciplines telles que la biologie (la thèse des générations spontanées, débattue entre Pasteur et Pouchet), de la médecine (le vitalisme opposé à la médecine expérimentale naissante), de la stéréotomie (les « Guerres perspectives » qui ont agité le Paris des années 1640), de la perspective (la mathématisation de la perspective dans l’Italie du 16e siècle) ou de l’optique (la question de l’intromission, discutée à Oxford). De querelles médiévales à des disputes plus récentes, ces études suivent un même fil conducteur : interroger les rôles de la rationalité, des conventions et des croyances collectives dans la construction des théories scientifiques. L’auteur défend une théorie incrémentaliste du progrès scientifique: pour autant qu’il suive des règles, le débat est un moyen pratique de tester la robustesse d’une théorie et de départager les théories rivales. Le fait que les débats soient souvent marqués par la passion et les émotions est sans intérêt ; l’important est que ces échanges réglés puissent, par la production d’arguments publics, s’approcher de la vérité. C’est une façon de répondre à la question : Pourquoi l’activité scientifique est-elle conflictuelle? (shrink)

This volume has 41 chapters written to honor the 100th birthday of Mario Bunge. It celebrates the work of this influential Argentine/Canadian physicist and philosopher. Contributions show the value of Bunge’s science-informed philosophy and his systematic approach to philosophical problems. The chapters explore the exceptionally wide spectrum of Bunge’s contributions to: metaphysics, methodology and philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of physics, philosophy of psychology, philosophy of social science, philosophy of biology, philosophy of technology, moral philosophy, social and political (...) philosophy, medical philosophy, and education. The contributors include scholars from 16 countries. Bunge combines ontological realism with epistemological fallibilism. He believes that science provides the best and most warranted knowledge of the natural and social world, and that such knowledge is the only sound basis for moral decision making and social and political reform. Bunge argues for the unity of knowledge. In his eyes, science and philosophy constitute a fruitful and necessary partnership. Readers will discover the wisdom of this approach and will gain insight into the utility of cross-disciplinary scholarship. This anthology will appeal to researchers, students, and teachers in philosophy of science, social science, and liberal education programmes. 1. Introduction Section I. An Academic Vocation Section II. Philosophy Section III. Physics and Philosophy of Physics Section IV. Cognitive Science and Philosophy of Mind Section V. Sociology and Social Theory Section VI. Ethics and Political Philosophy Section VII. Biology and Philosophy of Biology Section VIII. Mathematics Section IX. Education Section X. Varia Section XI. Bibliography. (shrink)

Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, London, University of London Press, 2023, xiv + 343 pp., 49 halftones, $120.00 (hardback); £90.00, ISBN 978-1-908590-58-9 (Warburg Institute Studies and Texts 8). The late Abdelhamid I. Sabra (1924–2013) devoted a significant part of his work to the critical edition and English translation of the optics of Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham….

To students and practitioners of anamorphic art, the name of Jean-François Niceron is more than preeminent; it has become iconic. La Perspective Curieuse was first published in 1638. An augmented version was then translated into Latin by Mersenne in 1646. A newly amended and augmented version was retranslated into French by Roberval in 1652. This book is an English translation of the 1652 text, with reference to the 1638 and 1646 versions. Considering the continued high reputation of the book, the (...) mathematics have been checked for correctness and consistency, and the authors have provided a full commentary, pointing out the most difficult turns of the 17th-century French, the respective contributions of Niceron, Mersenne and Roberval, and explaining Niceron's greatest insights and weaknesses. (shrink)

C'est sur le chemin étonnant et sinueux du célèbre Phénomène Humain que nous entraîne cet ouvrage, nous invitant à la table de l'Histoire : contexte ecclésial, oppositions intellectuelles notoires sur la marche de l'Univers, dédale des allers-retours entre Pierre Teilhard de Chardin et ses supérieurs à la recherche d'un nihil obstat" jamais décroché, et enfin, une publication post-mortem, au succès et au retentissement foudroyants. Se basant sur les archives privées de la Compagnie de Jésus et des documents inédits ou peu (...) connus, les auteurs reconstituent patiemment le fil et, au-delà des aspects historiques, offrent une analyse philosophique et théologique qui permet de prendre conscience de la richesse, mais aussi des limites de la pensée du célèbre jésuite, et, in fine, de sa fécondité pour la pensée actuelle"-- Back cover. (shrink)

Dominique Janicaud claimed that every French intellectual movement—from existentialism to psychoanalysis—was influenced by Martin Heidegger. This translation of Janicaud’s landmark work, Heidegger en France, details Heidegger’s reception in philosophy and other humanistic and social science disciplines. Interviews with key French thinkers such as Françoise Dastur, Jacques Derrida, Éliane Escoubas, Jean Greisch, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Jean-Luc Marion, and Jean-Luc Nancy are included and provide further reflection on Heidegger’s relationship to French philosophy. An intellectual undertaking of authoritative scope, this work furnishes a (...) thorough history of the French reception of Heidegger’s thought. (shrink)

Le concept au centre du dernier ouvrage d'Otfried Höffe publié en français est celui d'impératif catégorique juridique. Höffe souhaite, en effet, approfondir son apologie des principes juridiques catégoriques déjà developpée dans son précédent ouvrage Lajustice politiqueen éclaircissant ses sources kantiennes. Alors que dans l'ouvrage de 1991 la figure tutélaire de Kant était restée en retrait, Höffe a voulu expliciter son rapport à Kant ét montrer la façon dont la réflexion contemporaine sur le droit et le politique devrait elle-même se dire (...) kantienne. (shrink)

Dans la pensée politique contemporaine, la construction de l'Union européenne apparaît souvent comme une réalisation des idéaux les plus élevés du rationalisme politique européen, qui impliquerait un dépassement de la forme de l'État-nation au profit d'une entité de type nouveau, capable d'incarner une politique « postnationale ». Une étude historique de la notion d'Europe dans la philosophie conduit plutôt à distinguer entre deux grandes idées politiques; le concept cosmopolitique d'Europe correspond bien aux idéaux actuels, mais il exclut l'idée d'une unité (...) politique distincte; le concept européen de politique tend à unifier le territoire, la puissance et la protection des droits, mais il est lié à la formation de l'État-nation, par opposition à l'Empire; le problème posé par l'idée d'une « Europe politique » est peut-être de combiner ces deux notions. In contemporary political thought, the construction of the European Union is often interpreted as the realisation of the highest rationalist ideals, the consequence of which would be to go beyond the Nation-State, towards « postnational » politics. A historical examination of the notion of Europe in philosophy induces to distinguish between two great political ideas. The cosmopolitic concept of Europe is very close to actual ideals, but it excludes anything like a separate political body; on the other hand, the European concept of politics unites territory, power and protection of rights, but it seems historically linked to Nation-State as opposed to Empire. The problem of a « political Europe » is to combine these two concepts. (shrink)

The thought and work of the Jesuit Francisco Suárez (1548-1617) is widely acknowledged as the culmination point of the contribution of the theologians and jurists of the so-called School of Salamanca to the development of modern Western law. This collection of studies on the legal work of Suárez explores some of his major forays into the law. Both his theoretical system-building as well as his interventions in practical questions are covered. Next to discussions on the nature of law and its (...) different categorisations, they extend to various subbranches of the law including family law, property law, the law of obligations, criminal law and international law. Contributors are: Dominique Bauer, Daniel Schwartz, João Manuel Azevedo Alexandrino Fernandes, Lisa Brunori, Wim Decock, Bart Wauters, Gaëlle Demelemestre, and Jean-Paul Coujou. (shrink)

Diderot ne saurait être considéré comme l’un parmi d’autres des "matérialistes français" du XVIIIe siècle. Sa pensée ne s’inscrit en réalité ni dans la tradition cartésienne ni dans la tradition lockienne en matière de philosophie de la connaissance, contrairement à une tradition d’interprétations qu’on peut faire remonter à Marx dans la Sainte famille et qui s’est illustrée plus près de nous de plusieurs noms. Diderot écrivain, philosophe et encyclopédiste est ici étudié à l’occasion du tricentenaire de sa naissance, à travers (...) ses écrits – publics ou personnels – en cinq leçons ; un hommage par l’un des spécialistes de celui qui incarna peut-être le mieux, de son vivant déjà, le siècle des Lumières. (shrink)

Le calcul de distance entre les textes repose souvent sur l'étude de fréquences ; ainsi, les diverses œuvres des historiens latins peuvent être caractérisées par des dénombrements de catégories grammaticales, comme, par exemple, les temps et modes verbaux ; nous proposons ici une autre méthode prenant en compte la répartition des formes verbales le long de l'axe syntagmatique et rendant compte des effets de succession, – enchaînements et ruptures –, au sein de l'ensemble ordonné que constitue le texte. Des exemples (...) mettront en évidence l'intérêt de la démarche quand il s'agit d'évaluer le poids des divers facteurs à l'origine des écarts entre textes : époque, auteur, genre littéraire…. (shrink)

L'idéalisme de Th. Hill Green.--Le pragmatisme, d'après W. James et M. Schiller.--La signification du pragmatisme.--Le problème religieux dans la pensée contemporaine.--Notes sur la pensée catholique au temps du modernisme.--Émile Boutroux.--Le rire, d'après M. Bergson.--L'idée du progrès universel.--La philosophie d'Octave Hamelin.--M. Émile Meyerson et l'xplication dans les sciences.--En marge de M. Brunschvicg.--Le rationalisme et l'idée de Dieu.

This chapter, which provides a discussion on the phenomenological foundations of predicative structure, first introduces the different steps in Edmund Husserl's argument. It is noted that not all judgements can be equated with a nexus between a conceptual function and an argument. The predicative structure shows the orientation of consciousness towards one or more objects taken as a theme of interest and utterance. The genetic phenomenological perspective posits the question of the origin of predicative judgement within a much larger context. (...) Husserl's account amounts to granting a paradigmatic character to the theory of experience of ultimate individual substrates and to the theory of perceptual judgement. Levinasian phenomenology implies a radical rethinking of the primacy of the predicative apophansis. It is noted that language can never be taken as an independent and autonomous dimension. (shrink)

1. L'histoire de l'humain comme catastrophe écologique -- La catastrophe néolithique -- L'homme contre la Nature -- L'humanisme contre l'animal -- Une haine savante contre la Nature -- 2. Substituer des machines aux êtres vivants -- L'élimination de l'animalité -- Des technologies autistes, schizophréniques et paranoïaques -- 3. Machiner l'humain -- La préférence de l'homme pour des hommes artificiels : la parabole de James -- 4. Le post-humain comme point final du désastre humaniste -- La honte prométhéenne de Ginther Anders (...) -- Détruire non seulement la Nature mais aussi le souvenir qu'on pourrait en avoir -- 5. A quoi sert donc l'humain ? -- Remettre l'homme à sa place -- Décaper la morale -- La ressource animiste -- Perspectivisme et multinaturalisme -- Immersion de l'humain dans un monde tragique. (shrink)

Le réel, travaillé par une structure dissimulée sous le discours scientifique, technique et marchand que l'auteur érige à la dignité de concept sous le sigle "STM", impose sans vergogne les trouvailles les plus incertaines : équations financières douteuses, nucléaire civil et militaire, chaînes de Ponzi, génie génétique, NBIC etc. aboutissant en plus des inégalités, à la pollution industrielle planétaire de l'air, de l'eau et des aliments, du dépérissement des plantes, des animaux et des hommes. Supposant un sujet dont le discours (...) "STM" veut toujours se débarrasser, c'est le rôle de la psychanalyse de ne pas céder sur l'éthique, chacun ayant à répondre de la responsabilité de son inconscient non seulement là où ça parle, mais également là où ça revient sous la forme d'un réel répétitif et traumatique, celui de la catastrophe. (shrink)