Seeking consent for genetic and genomic research can be challenging, particularly in populations with low literacy levels, and in emergency situations. All of these factors were relevant to the MalariaGEN study of genetic factors influencing immune responses to malaria in northern rural Ghana. This study sought to identify issues arising in practice during the enrolment of paediatric cases with severe malaria and matched healthy controls into the MalariaGEN study.

Ethical challenges in genomic epidemiology are the direct result of novel tools used to confront scientific challenges in the field. An orders-of-magnitude increase in scale of genetic data collection has created the need for establishing diffuse international partnerships, sometimes across developed- and developing-world countries, with ramifications for assigning research ownership, distributing intellectual property rights, and encouraging capacity-building. Meanwhile, the fact that genomic epidemiological research is so far upstream in the pipeline of therapy development has implications for the privacy rights of (...) research participants and for a rigorous definition of valid informed consent, particularly in resource-poor settings. From these scientific underpinnings, we distill out two main categories of ethical issues: (1) How should researchers ensure that the subjects of research are appropriately protected? and (2) What is the structure of an equitable and fair system for distributing the financial and scientific rewards of research? We attempt to delineate the contours of specific problems in each category and propose steps toward solutions with reference to a particular project, known as gMap.net, that focuses on genomic epidemiological studies of malaria. (shrink)

Many common human traits are believed to be a composite reflection of multiple genetic and non‐genetic factors and the genetic contribution is consequently often difficult to characterise. Recent advances suggest that subtle variation in the regulation of gene expression may contribute to complex human traits. In two reports,1,2 Cheung and colleagues scale up human genetics analysis to an impressive level in a genome‐wide search for the regulators of gene expression. They perform linkage analysis on expression profiles for over 3,500 genes (...) and then employ the HapMap resource3 to take positive findings through to association studies at the genome‐wide level. This work gives new insights into the complexities of gene regulation and the plausibility of genome‐wide study design. BioEssays 28: 968–972, 2006. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (shrink)

In this important study D. M. Armstrong offers a comprehensive system of analytical metaphysics that synthesises but also develops his thinking over the last twenty years. Armstrong's analysis, which acknowledges the 'logical atomism' of Russell and Wittgenstein, makes facts the fundamental constituents of the world, examining properties, relations, numbers, classes, possibility and necessity, dispositions, causes and laws. All these, it is argued, find their place and can be understood inside a scheme of states of affairs. This is a comprehensive and (...) rigorously this-worldly account of the most general features of reality, argued from a distinctive philosophical perspective, and it will appeal to a wide readership in analytical philosophy. (shrink)

The introduction of the modern diagnostic and therapeutic procedures to the medical practice provided a new challenge for the medicine. The art of medicine, with its default purpose of acting for the benefit of health, is therefore required to derive from technological progress effectively and rationally. As a result, the medical ethics has been engaged with the rules of economy and management of deficit medical procedures as well as their rational and fair distribution. The above suggests, that medics, given these (...) recourses, should approach each patient with a consideration to their therapeutic rights. However, the physicians cannot just concentrate on the good of one particular patient, but must take into account joint responsibility for the good of a potential patient. This makes medical ethical dilemmas similar to the ethical issues of business. The notion of responsibility is the key for discriminating these two kinds of ethics. (shrink)

Introduction La présente bibliographie a été constituée sur la base de celle parue en 1995-1996, sous le titre de “Bibliografia podmiotowa i przedmiotowa Profesora Jerzego Kalinowskiego”, Summarium 24-25 (44-45), Lublin, 1995-1996, elle-même inspirée, en ce qui concerne les années antérieures à 1983, de la bibliographie établie par R. Bozzi, La logique deontica di Georges Kalinowski, Naples, 1984, 193-204. Nous l’avons completée par...

Introduction La présente bibliographie a été constituée sur la base de celle parue en 1995-1996, sous le titre de “Bibliografia podmiotowa i przedmiotowa Profesora Jerzego Kalinowskiego”, Summarium 24-25 (44-45), Lublin, 1995-1996, elle-même inspirée, en ce qui concerne les années antérieures à 1983, de la bibliographie établie par R. Bozzi, La logique deontica di Georges Kalinowski, Naples, 1984, 193-204. Nous l’avons completée par...

This book grew out of the conviction that the original concepts of the Poznań School of Legal Theory are still perfectly suited for application today, in the era of moral pluralism and multicentric legal systems. Moreover, since we are in the midst of a period of heated disputes over the grounds of the normativity of law, and are confronting controversies about the basis for the legitimacy of court decisions, over the results of legal interpretation, and concerning the coherence of legal (...) systems, it would seem that the legal-theoretical proposals put forward by the circle of Poznań legal theorists, supported as they are by firm methodological foundations, have not by any means lost their value. (shrink)

Educated historians of philosophy reluctantly expose connections between Western esotericism and the mainstream modern philosophy Esotericism is usually associated with intellectual quackery, which leads many of its followers to heresy and exclusion from the Christian world. However, prominent representatives of the European philosophy sometimes drew their inspiration from esoteric knowledge, e.g. G. Bruno and Spinoza from kabbalah or F. W. J. Schelling from F. C. Oetinger’s theosophy. G. W. F. Hegel was probably aware that the esoteric thought played an essential (...) role in the establishing of the modern scientific method. Therefore, in his Lectures on the History of Philosophy he devoted a separate chapter to J. Boehme, who provided the basis for the modern dialectic in his theosophy. The author of this article makes a comparative analysis between the elected elements of Boehme’s and Hegel’s thought and exposes many structural similarities in their works. At the same time, the author suggests that Boehme’s theory could have been an important source of inspiration for Hegel, especially in the early phase of his intellectual development. (shrink)

Izydora Dąmbska presented her views on the semiotics of proper names in her two studies: O bezimienności [On Namelessness] and Filozofia imion własnych [Philosophy of Proper Na­mes]. The author refers mainly to the second work. I. Dąmbska begins with a syntactic definition of proper name, then she attempts to define the basic semantic function of proper name, that is, the function of naming. She emphasises the essential difference between this function of proper names and the function of denotation played by (...) descriptive names. The difference consists in the fact that a descriptive name denotes an individual object as a representative of a respective class, whereas a proper name names an individual person without any class references. A name represents an individual by way of universaliter, i.e. in its many aspects and as one despite differences in the course of his whole life. As such, the proper name represents a conscious object of knowledge and agency. It mediates in personal relations between people and is the material of legends and history, affirms the unity of its bearer, and ensures his duration beyond death and grave. Its secondary meaning is that it plays the function of naming and representing also fictionary literary figures. (shrink)

The subject matter of our considerations here is the concept of classical logic. The author begins with a brief etymological reflection and a presentation of some views ancient philosophers had (from Heraclitus to Plato) and inspired Aristotle’s and stoic discussion of logic. They brought about the first systems of formal logic and rich outlines of other branches of logic in their broad understanding, such as the methodology of sciences and semiotics. Aristotle’s logical discoveries (mainly syllogistic logic of assertoric propositions, syllogistic (...) logic of modal propositions, and theory of scientific proof), and stoics’ discoveries (logic of propositions and semiotics) are the first, highly advanced approaches to classical logic. The later history of logic consisted mainly in the reception of those ancient achievements, or in their semantic enrichment. (shrink)

BackgroundGenome-wide association studies (GWAS) provide a powerful means of identifying genetic variants that play a role in common diseases. Such studies present important ethical challenges. An increasing number of GWAS is taking place in lower income countries and there is a pressing need to identify the particular ethical challenges arising in such contexts. In this paper, we draw upon the experiences of the MalariaGEN Consortium to identify specific ethical issues raised by such research in Africa, Asia and Oceania.DiscussionWe explore ethical (...) issues in three key areas: protecting the interests of research participants, regulation of international collaborative genomics research and protecting the interests of scientists in low income countries. With regard to participants, important challenges are raised about community consultation and consent. Genomics research raises ethical and governance issues about sample export and ownership, about the use of archived samples and about the complexity of reviewing such large international projects. In the context of protecting the interests of researchers in low income countries, we discuss aspects of data sharing and capacity building that need to be considered for sustainable and mutually beneficial collaborations.SummaryMany ethical issues are raised when genomics research is conducted on populations that are characterised by lower average income and literacy levels, such as the populations included in MalariaGEN. It is important that such issues are appropriately addressed in such research. Our experience suggests that the ethical issues in genomics research can best be identified, analysed and addressed where ethics is embedded in the design and implementation of such research projects. (shrink)

BackgroundObtaining informed consent for participation in genomic research in low-income settings presents specific ethical issues requiring attention. These include the challenges that arise when providing information about unfamiliar and technical research methods, the implications of complicated infrastructure and data sharing requirements, and the potential consequences of future research with samples and data. This study investigated researchers’ and participants’ parents’ experiences of a consent process and understandings of a genome-wide association study of malaria involving children aged five and under in Mali. (...) It aimed to inform best practices in recruiting participants into genomic research.MethodsA qualitative rapid ethical assessment was undertaken. Fifty-five semi-structured interviews were conducted with the parents of research participants. An additional nine semi-structured interviews were conducted with senior research scientists, research assistants and with a member of an ethics committee. A focus group with five parents of research participants and direct observations of four consent processes were also conducted. French and translated English transcripts were descriptively and thematically coded using OpenCode software.ResultsParticipants’ parents in the MalariaGEN study had differing understandings of the causes of malaria, the rationale for collecting blood samples, the purposes of the study and the kinds of information the study would generate. Genomic aspects of the research, including the gene/environment interaction underlying susceptibility or resistance to severe malaria, proved particularly challenging to explain and understand.ConclusionsThis study identifies a number of areas to be addressed in the design of consent processes for genomic research, some of which require careful ethical analysis. These include determining how much information should be provided about differing aspects of the research and how best to promote understandings of genomic research. We conclude that it is important to build capacity in the design and conduct of effective and appropriate consent processes for genomic research in low and middle-income settings. Additionally, consideration should be given to the role of review committees and community consultation activities in protecting the interests of participants in genomic research. (shrink)

The practice of making datasets publicly available for use by the wider scientific community has become firmly integrated in genomic science. One significant gap in literature around data sharing concerns how it impacts on scientists’ ability to preserve values and ethical standards that form an essential component of scientific collaborations. We conducted a qualitative sociological study examining the potential for harm to ethnic groups, and implications of such ethical concerns for data sharing. We focused our empirical work on the MalariaGEN (...) Consortium, one of the first international collaborative genomics research projects in Africa. (shrink)

A comprehensive introduction to the ways in which meaning is conveyed in language. Alan Cruse covers semantic matters, but also deals with topics that are usually considered to fall under pragmatics. A major aim is to highlight the richness and subtlety of meaning phenomena, rather than to expound any particular theory. Rich in examples and exercises, Meaning in Language provides an invaluable descriptive approach to this area of linguistics for undergraduates and postgraduates alike.

Authors philosophical notes on life, conduct of life from the perspective of a life.

This book: * assumes no mathematical background and keeps the technicalities to a minimum * explains the most important applications of probability theory to ...

In this entry we provide a critical review of recent work on the nature and ethics of blame, including issues of moral standing.

A record of the words and teachings of Confucius, _The Analects_ is considered the most reliable expression of Confucian thought. However, the original meaning of Confucius's teachings have been filtered and interpreted by the commentaries of Confucianists of later ages, particularly the Neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty, not altogether without distortion.In this monumental translation by Professor D. C. Lau, an attempt has been made to interpret the sayings as they stand. The corpus of the sayings is taken as an organic (...) whole and the final test of the interpretation rests on the internal consistency it exhibits. In other words, _The Analects_ is read in the light of _The Analects._This results in a truer understanding of Confucius' thought than the traditional interpretation and paves the way for a re-assessment of its importance in the history of Chinese thought and its relevance to the present day world.This volume also contains an introduction to the life and teachings of Confucius, and three appendices on the events in the life of Confucius, on his disciples, and on the composition of _The Analects._. (shrink)

Differences on Organizational Practices and Preferred Leader Attributes Between Polish Managers Investigated in 1996/1997 and 2008/2009 This study compares Polish managers' perceptions of their organizational culture and their beliefs concerning attributes necessary for leadership effectiveness, investigated in 1996/1997 and 2008/2009. As was unexpected, our results show that Polish managers of 2008/2009 score significantly higher than managers of 1996/1997 on Power Distance, Individualism, Masculinity and slightly lower on Future Orientation and Humane Orientation. Our findings suggest that more individualistic orientation in Polish (...) organizations is still necessary in order to survive and be effective during the current turbulent and highly uncertain economic and business conditions. Relatively higher scores on Power Distance on the part of Polish managers being studied in the years 2008/2009 are also in line with findings concerned with attributes necessary for leadership effectiveness. Mean comparisons on beliefs concerning attributes necessary for leadership effectiveness show that Polish managers of 2008/2009 in comparison with their counterparts studied in 1996/1997 scored higher on Autocratic Orientation, Risk Avoidance, Isolationistic Orientation and Individualistic Orientation. Our findings are also consistent with regard to leadership attributes of Performance Orientation, Team Orientation, Decisiveness, Diplomatic, Humane Orientation, Integrity, Visionary and Charismatic/inspirational, which are somewhat less strongly associated with leadership effectiveness by Polish middle managers investigated in 2008/2009 in comparison with their counterparts studied in 1996/1997. (shrink)